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\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 IN THE SUPREME COURT OF GUAM \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 JOHNNY R. NEWBY, LYNETTE C. NEWBY, \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Plaintiffs-Appellants, \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 V}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 GOVERNMENT OF GUAM, \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Defendant-Appellee. \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Supreme Court Case No.: CVA09-016 \par Superior Court Case No.: CV1289-08 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 OPINION \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Filed:}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 March 5, 2010 \par Cite as: 2010 Guam 4 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Appeal from the Superior Court of Guam \par Argued and Submitted on October 16, 2009 \par Hag\'e5t\'f1a, Guam \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\lastrow \ts15\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth4788\clshdrawnil \cellx4680\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth4788\clshdrawnil \cellx9468\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid4724131\yts15 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Appearing for Plaintiffs-Appellants:}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par Lewis W. Littlepage, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Esq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 . \par P.O. Box 2794 \par Wailuku, HI 96793-7794 \par \cell }{\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Appearing for Defendant-Appellee:}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par David J. Highsmith, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Esq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 . \par Assistant Attorney General \par Office of the Attorney General \par 287 W O\rquote Brien Dr. \par Hag\'e5t\'f1a, GU 96910\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \trowd \irow0\irowband0\lastrow \ts15\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth4788\clshdrawnil \cellx4680\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth4788\clshdrawnil \cellx9468\row }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par BEFORE: Chief Justice ROBERT J. TORRES; F. PHILIP CARBULLIDO, Associate Justice; KATHERINE A. MARAMAN, Associate Justice. \par \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 CARBULLIDO, J.: \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [1] }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Plaintiffs-Appellants Johnny R. Newby and Lynette C. Newby (collectively the }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Newbys}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ) appeal from a grant of a motion to dismiss in favor of Defendant-Appellee Government of Guam (}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Government}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ) in relation to a dispute as to damages owed in tort for events leading up to and ultimately resulting in the death of the Newbys\rquote minor son.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The Newbys argue that the Superior Court erred when it did not convert the Government\rquote s Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss into a Rule 56 motion for summary judgment after considering a prior $300,000.00 settlement between the Newbys and the Guam Memorial Hospital Authority (}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 GMHA}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ), which was not part of the complaint in the above-captioned case.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The Newbys also argue that their settlement with the GMHA is irrelevant because the suit against the Guam Public School System is a separate tort suit and Guam law permits double recovery in tort against the Government of Guam.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In addition, the Newbys argue that the damages cap and the prohibition against jury trials in the Government Claims Act are inor ganic and unconstitutional inasmuch as they violate equal protection, due process, the right to trial by jury, and separation of powers. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [2]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We find that although the Superior Court should have converted the Government\rquote s motion to dismiss into a motion for summary judgment, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 de novo}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 review permits this court on appeal to treat the Government \rquote s motion as one for summary judgment and dispose of it under Rule 56.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Because we find that the Newbys received $300,000.00 pursuant to their settlement agreement with t he GMHA for the wrongful death of their minor son, we hold that the Newbys have already recovered the maximum recoverable amount in tort damages against the Government and are therefore barred from any further recovery against the Government. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [3]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Accordingly, we affirm. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 I.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [4]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab This is a wrongful death case arising out of a series of tragic events involving the assault on and resulting death of the Newbys\rquote son, Jeromy.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In October 2006, while on the campus of Southern High School during school hours, Jeromy was assaulted by another student.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 At some point after the assault, other students located Jeromy and assisted him to the school\rquote s nurse\rquote s office, where he remained for several hours before slipping into a coma.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 At some point, Jeromy was transported to the Guam Memorial Hospital, where he lingered in a coma until his death on January 5, 2007.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [5]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys filed two related tort claims pursuant to the Government Claims Act, 5 GCA \'a7 6101 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 .:}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 one against the Guam Public School System (}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 GPSS}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ) alleging that the GPSS acted negligently with regard to its handling of the above-described events, and one against the Guam Memorial Hospital Authority (}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 GMHA}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ) alleging that the GMHA failed to adequately and properly respond to Jeromy\rquote s injuries.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The GPSS is a line agency.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The GMHA is an autonomous agency.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The GPSS, through its legal counsel, denied the Newbys\rquote claim against that line agency.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 As to the GMHA, the Newbys settled their claim against the hospital for $300,000.00.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [6]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys then filed a complaint in the Superior Court against the GPSS and the Government seeking approximately $16 million in damages for the wrongful death of Jeromy.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In their complaint, the Newbys advanced six theories of Defendants\rquote negligence, including:}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 failure to act in }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 loco parentis}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ; failure to provide adequate security; failure to properly supervise conduct of students; failure to properly train GPSS employees; failure to provide proper care and attention; and failure to properly train school medical staff. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [7]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Pursuant to Guam Rules of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), Defendant-Appellee the Government of Guam (}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Government}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ) filed a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted, asserting that the Newbys\rquote claim against the GPSS and the Government was barred by the Newbys\rquote previous $300,000.00 settlement with the GMHA.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 To its 12(b)(6) motion, the Government attached a copy of the original and the amended January 3, 2008 settlement agreement between the Newbys and the GMHA.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The GPSS, through its legal counsel, joined the Government\rquote s 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Thereafter, the Newbys filed an opposition to the Government\rquote s motion to dismiss as well as their own motion to declare the damage caps and non-jury trials in the Government Claims Act inorganic and unconstitutional. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [8]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Superior Court issued its Decision and Order granting the Government\rquote s motion to dismiss, essentially finding that the Government Claims Act and the Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act worked in tandem to bar any further recovery by the Newbys beyond the $300,000.00 settlement with the GMHA.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In the same Decision and Order, the Superior Court dismissed the Newbys\rquote motion to declare the damage caps and non-jury trials in the Government Claims Act inorganic and unconstitutional.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The Newbys timely appealed. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 II. JURISDICTION \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [9]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 This court has jurisdiction over an appeal from a final judgment pursuant to 48 U.S.C. \par A. \'a7 1424-1(a)(2) (West Supp. 2009); 7 GCA \'a7\'a7 3107(b), 3108(a) (2005).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 III. STANDARD OF REVIEW{\*\bkmkstart OLE_LINK3}{\*\bkmkstart OLE_LINK4} \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par [10]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Pursuant to this court\rquote s power on appeal to convert a Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss into a summary judgment motion, the appropriate standard to review the grant of a motion for summary judgment is }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 de novo}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 .}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \cs18\i\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Iizuka Corp. v. Kawasho Int\rquote l (Guam)}{\cs18\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{ \cs18\i\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Inc.}{\cs18\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 1997 Guam 10 \'b6 7}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (citing }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Bagdadi v. Nazar}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 84 F.3d 1194, 1197 (9th Cir. 1996)); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Wasson v. Berg}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2007 Guam 16 \'b6 9{\*\bkmkstart wlCitedDoc} (citing }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Nat\rquote l Union Fire I ns. Co. v. Guam Hous. & Urban Renewal Auth.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2003 Guam 19 \'b6 12).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 {\*\bkmkend wlCitedDoc} \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [11]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab In addition, we review issues of statutory interpretation }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 de novo}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 .}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Quichocho v. Macy\rquote s Dept. Stores, Inc.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2008 Guam 9 \'b6 13 (citing }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Carlson v. Guam Tel. Auth.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2002 Guam 15 \'b6 16). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 {\*\bkmkend OLE_LINK3}{\*\bkmkend OLE_LINK4} \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 IV. DISCUSSION \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [12]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys essentially argue that the Superior Court erred in finding:}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 1) that the Newby-GMHA settlement was }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 integral}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 to the Newbys\rquote complaint preparation in the instant case so as to permit a review of the Government\rquote s motion to dismiss under the 12(b)(6) standard; and 2) that the {\*\bkmkstart OLE_LINK6}{\*\bkmkstart OLE_LINK7}Government Claims Act, 5 GCA \'a7 6101 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., and the Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act, 7 GCA \'a7 24601 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., work together to bar any recovery beyond the $300,000.00{\*\bkmkend OLE_LINK6}{\*\bkmkend OLE_LINK7} the Newbys have already received pursuant to the Newby-GMHA settlement.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In addition, the Newbys argue that the damages cap and the prohibition against jury trials in the Government Claims Act are inorganic and unconstitutional inasmuch as they violate equal protection, due process, the right to trial by jury, and separation of powers. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [13]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We address each of these arguments in turn. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 A.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The Government\rquote s 12(b)(6) Motion }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [14]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The general rule is that a Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted, must be converted into a Rule 56 motion for summary judgment whenever }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 matters outside the pleadings}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 are presented to and considered by the court: } {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 If, on a motion asserting the defense numbered (6) to dismiss for failure of the pleading to state a claim upon which relief can be granted, matters outside the pleadings are presented to and not excluded by the court, the motion shall be t reated as one for summary judgment and disposed of as provided in Rule 56, and all parties shall be given reasonable opportunity to present all material made pertinent to such motion by Rule 56.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par Guam R. Civ. P. 12(b); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\cs22\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Carter v. Stanton}{ \cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 405 U.S. 669, 671 (1972) (finding that the consideration of matters outside the pleadings, on a hearing for a motion to dismiss, required converting the motion into one for summary judgment and disposing of it as provided by Rule 56); }{ \cs22\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Lee v. City of L.A.}{\cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 250 F.3d 668, 688 (9th Cir. 2001) (reciting the general rule that a court may not consider any material outside the pleadings in ruling on a Rule 12(b)(6) motion).}{\cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 I}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 n ruling on a 12(b)(6) motion, a court\rquote s consideration is limited to the complaint, writt en instruments attached to the complaint as exhibits, statements or documents incorporated in the complaint by reference, and documents on which the complaint heavily relies.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Mercado Arocho v. United States}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 455 F. Supp. 2d 15, 19 (D.P.R. 2006) (quotation omitted). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [15]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The general rule{\*\bkmkstart SR_4046}{\*\bkmkstart SearchTerm}{\*\bkmkend SR_4046} that a court may not consider extrinsic evidence outside the pleadings{\*\bkmkstart SR_4055}{\*\bkmkend SearchTerm}{\*\bkmkend SR_4055} for the purposes of ruling on a 12(b)(6) motion is subject to at least two exceptions.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Hotel Employees & Rest. Employees Local 2 v. Vista Inn Mgmt. Co.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 393 F. Supp. 2d 972, 979 (N.D. Cal. 2005).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 One of these exceptions is relevant here.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Documents whose authenticity cannot be questioned and on which plaintiff\rquote s complaint }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 necessarily relies}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 may be considered in ruling on a Rule 12(b)(6) motion.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id. }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (citation omitted).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 For this exception to apply, such documents must be }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 integral}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 to the plaintiff\rquote s complaint and }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 dispositive}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 in the dispute.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ; }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 see also}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Parrino v. FHP, Inc.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 146 F.3d 699, 706 (9th Cir. 199 8) (finding that in ruling on a 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss, a court may consider outside documents }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 upon which the plaintiff\rquote s complaint necessarily relies}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ),}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 superseded by statute on other grounds as recognized in}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Abrego Abrego v. The Dow Chem. Co.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 443 F.3d 676, 681 (9th Cir. 2006); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Pension Benefit Guar. Corp. v. White Consol. Indus. Inc.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 998 F.2d 1192, 1196 (3rd Cir. 1993) (holding that a court may consider an undisputedly authentic document that a defendant attaches as an exhibit to a motion to dismiss if it is dispositive of plaintiff\rquote s claims).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Courts have reasoned that failure on the part of plaintiffs to reference or attach to their complaints such }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 integral}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 documents }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 rais[es] the spectre that plaintiff failed to incorporate them by reference in the complaint as a means of avoiding Rule 12(b)(6) dismissal.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Hotel Employees}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 393 F. Supp. 2d 972, 979. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [16]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Ninth Circuit has instructed that in ruling on a Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss, courts }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 may consider a document the authenticity of which is not contested, and upon which the plaintiff\rquote s complaint necessarily relies.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Parrino}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 146 F.3d 699, 706.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Parrino,}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 the insured under a health maintenance organization (HMO) plan sponsored by his employer sued the plan administrator and the plan\rquote s primary health care provider in state court, alleging that they improperly denied his initial claim for proton beam therapy as a treatment for a fatal brain tumor.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 at 702.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 There, the court addressed the question of conversion, specifically whether the trial court erred in considering the FHP Master Group Application (}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 application}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ) when ruling on the defendant\rquote s motion to dismiss.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In his complaint, Parrino made reference to the FHP }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 group plan}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 and its }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 cost containment program}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 but did not directly reference the application or attach it.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 at 706.} {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The court reasoned that because Parrino\rquote s claims rested on his membership in FHP\rquote s plan and on the plan\rquote s terms, documents governing plan membership, coverage, and administration were }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 essential to his complaint.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Because the application included key terms regarding the plan covering Parrino and because its authenticity was not in dispute, the appellate court found it }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 proper for the district court to consider that document in ruling on the defendant\rquote s motion to dismiss.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The court ultimately held that a court in ruling on a motion to dismiss may consider a document the authenticity of which is not contested, and upon which the plaintiff\rquote s complaint necessarily relies.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [17]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab For the exception to the conversion rule to apply here, the relevant inquiry is whether the Newbys }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 necessarily relied}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 on the Newby-GMHA settlement agreement in their complaint preparation in the instant case.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Here, unlike in }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Parrino}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , the Newbys made no mention of their prior settlement with the GMHA in their complaint, and did not attach it to their complaint.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In addition, because the Newbys argue on appeal that the settlement is entirely irrelevant to the instant case for the reason that the GMHA and the GPSS are guilty of different torts, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 see} {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Appellants\rquote Br. at 11-15 (Aug. 19, 2009), it seems reasonably clear that the Newbys did not rely on the settlement in preparing their complaint in the instant case, despite the Superior Court\rquote s contrary finding.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Appellants\rquote Excerpts of Record (}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ), tab 3, at 4 (Dec. & Order, May 27, 2009) (}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In light of the Plaintiffs\rquote arguments in opposition to Defendant\rquote s motion and considering the fact that GMH[A] is auspiciously absent from this complaint, the court finds that the settlement agreement was integral in Plaintiff\rquote s [sic] complaint preparation.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Because Plaintiffs argue that Defendants as well as GMH[A], are separately liable for torts to Jeromy Newby, it would be unreasonable not to include GMH[A] as a listed pa rty, had Plaintiff [sic] not relied upon the settlement agreement in drafting their complaint.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Here, the Superior Court found that the Newbys\rquote $300,000.00 settlement agreement with the GMHA was }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 integral}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 to the Newbys \rquote complaint preparation in the instant case, which enabled it to consider the settlement as part of the pleadings for purposes of disposing of the Government\rquote s 12(b)(6) motion.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER, tab 8 at 10 (Dec. & Order).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 This in turn enabled the court to grant the Government\rquote s motion to dismiss without converting it into a motion for summary judgment under Rule 56.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 This was error.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [18]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Because the Newby-GMHA settlement agreement was not referenced in or attached to the complaint in the instant case, and because its terms and effects were not necessari ly relied upon by the Newbys in the instant action, the Superior Court erred when it did not convert the Government\rquote s 12(b)(6) motion into a Rule 56 summary judgment motion after considering the Newby-GMHA settlement agreement. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [19]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Upon conversion, the r equirements of Rule 56 become operable and the matter proceeds as would any motion made directly under that rule.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 S & S Lodging Co., Inc. v. Barker}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 366 F.2d 617, 623 (9th Cir. 1966) (finding that because the whole case was before the appellate court and because no counter showing was made contradicting the record at the trial level, it would be }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 wasteful}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 to remand for the consideration of the summary judgment motion); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 accord Sec. & Exch. Comm\rquote n. v. Chenery Corp}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 318 U.S. 80, 88 (1943) (}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 It wou ld be wasteful to send a case back to a lower court to reinstate a decision which it had already made but which the appellate court concluded should properly be based on another ground within the power of the appellate court to formulate.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Accordingly, t he question now before this court is whether the Government can demonstrate, in accordance with the requirements of Rule 56, that there exists no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the movant is entitled to the entry of a judgment as a matter of law.}{\cs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s19\qj \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 { \cs20\fs20\super\insrsid4724131\charrsid15944099 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 Remanding this matter back to the Superior Court would be contrary to the interests of judicial economy and ultimately unhelpful in the instant case. Production by the parties of supplemental additional materials would be unhelpful because the d etermination of governmental liability is a question of law involving interpretation of 5 GCA }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 \'a7 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 6101, }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 et seq}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 ., and 7 GCA }{ \fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 \'a7 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 24601, }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 et seq}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 .}}}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [20]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We now turn to the substance of the instant appeal to determine whether the Government Claims Act, 5 GCA \'a7 6101 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., and the Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act, 7 GCA \'a7 24601 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., operate to bar any recovery beyond the $300,000.00 the Newbys have already received pursuant to the Newby-GMHA settlement. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 B.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Wrongful Death \par \par [21]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys argue that the Superior Court erred in finding that the Government Claims Act, 5 GCA \'a7 6101 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., and the Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act, 7 GCA \'a7 24601 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., effectively bar any recovery by the Newbys against the Government for the same wrongful dea th beyond the $300,000.00 the Newbys already received pursuant to the Newby-GMHA settlement agreement.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Specifically, the Newbys argue that neither the instant case nor their government claim against the GMHA for which they already settled, is a wrongful death action.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER, tab 6 at 5 (Opp\rquote n Mot.). (}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The torts or injuries settled by GMH[A] are separate and apart from the injuries caused by GPSS. . . . GMH[A] settled only for its own wrongful acts not including death.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 There has been no settlement for wrongful death.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 There has been no settlement for the torts of [GPSS] which are separate and apart from the torts of GMH[A].}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Instead, the Newbys tacitly assert that both claims come under the catch-all category denominated in the Government Claims Act as }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 any other tort action.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 5 GCA \'a7 6301(b).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [22]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Section 6301 of the Government Claims Act, which provides the maximum amount recoverable against the Government under the Act, provides in pertinent part: \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (b) The government of Guam, in the case of line agencies, shall be liable in tort for not more than $100,000 in an action for wrongful death, nor for more than $300,000 in }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 any other tort action}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 . \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (c) Each autonomous agency shall be liable for torts committed by it for not more than the amounts stated in subsection (b), above. \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par 5 GCA \'a7\'a7 6301(b), (c) (2005) (emphasis added).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 By characterizing the Defendants\rquote alleged negligence as }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 any other tort action}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 as opposed to }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 wrongful death,}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 the Newbys would be entitled to the larger of the two amounts; that is, $300,000.00.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Moreover, because their settlement with the GMHA was for $300,000.00, the Newbys assert that this indicates that the GMHA }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 did not settle a wrongful death action which has a limit of $100,000, but for its own additional torts . . . .}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER, tab 6 at 5 (Opp\rquote n Mot., Mar. 10, 2009).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [23]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab For the reasons set out below, we reject this argument and find that this is indeed a wrongful death case. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [24]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Guam\rquote s wrongful death statute is codified at 7 GCA \'a7 12109.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Originally adopted in 1933 by the Naval Government of Guam from section 377 of the California Code of Civil Procedure, Guam\rquote s early version was codified under the same section number in the Code of Civil Procedure of Guam.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Since 1933, the Guam Legislature has amended the statute, the last amendment occurring in 1978.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In that year, the Fourteenth Guam Legislature amended the statute to mirror California\rquote s 1977 version}{\cs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s19\qj \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs20\fs20\super\insrsid4724131\charrsid10376050 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 Unlike the current Guam version, }{ \fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid10376050 California}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 \rquote s 1977 version of Section 377 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid10376050 references Section 573 of the Probate Code, and not Section 956 of the Civil Code.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 In addition, the reference in }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8334029 7 GCA \'a7 12109}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid10376050 to \'93\'a7 956 of the Civil Code\'94 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 is an error. The statute should instead reference \'9319 GCA \'a7 31104,\'94 which was formerly }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid10376050 \'a7 956 of the Civil Code}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 . 7 GCA \'a7 12109 (2005)}}}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 of section 377, which provides what is now 7 GCA \'a7 12109 and reads in part: \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (a) When the death of a person is caused by the wrongful act or neglect of another, his or her heirs or personal representa tives on their behalf may maintain an action for damages against the person causing the death, or in case of the death of such wrongdoer against the personal representative of such wrongdoer, whether the wrongdoer dies before of [sic] after the death of t h e person injured. If any other person is responsible for any such wrongful act or neglect, the action may also be maintained against such other person, or in case of his or her death, his or her personal representatives. In every action under this Section , such damages may be given as, under all the circumstances of the case, may be just, but shall not include damages recoverable under \'a7 956 of the Civil Code [sic].}{\cs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s19\ql \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs20\fs20\super\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 }{ \fs20\insrsid4724131 Former }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid10376050 \'a7 956 of the Civil Code}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 , now 19 GCA \'a7 31104 (2005), reads: \par }\pard\plain \qj \li720\ri720\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid15488745 A thing of action arisi ng out of a wrong which results in physical injury to the person or out of a statute imposing liability for such injury shall not abate by reason of the death of the wrongdoer or any other person liable for damages for such injury; nor by reason of the de a th of a person injured or of any other person who owns any such things in action. When the person entitled to maintain such an action dies before judgment, damages recoverable for such injury shall be limited to loss of earnings and expenses sustained or i ncurred as a result of the injury by the deceased prior to his death, and shall not include damages for pain, suffering or disfigurement, nor punitive or exemplary damages, nor prospective profits or earnings after the date of death. The damages recovered shall form part of the estate of the deceased. Nothing in this section shall be construed as making such thing in action assignable.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qj \fi-720\li720\ri720\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\pnrdate-2031934533\pnrnot1\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\fs20\insrsid4724131 19 GCA \'a7 31104 (2005).}}}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The respective rights of the heirs in any award shall be determined by the court. Any action brought by the personal representative of the decedent pursuant to the provisions of \'a7 956 of the Civil Code [sic] may be joined with an action arising out of the same wrongful act or neglect brought pursuant to the provisions of this Section. If an action be brought pursuant to the provisions of this Section, and a separate action arising out of the same wrongful act or neglect be brought pursuant to the provisio ns of \'a7 956 of the Civil Code [sic], such actions shall be consolidated for trial on the motion of any interested party. \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 7 GCA \'a7 12109 (2005).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Although section 377 of the California Code of Civil Procedure was repealed by the California legislature in 1992, and substantially re-organized into a new section in that state\rquote s Code,}{ \cs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s19\qj \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 { \cs20\fs20\super\insrsid4724131\charrsid10487032 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 In 1992, Section 377 of the California Code of Civil Procedure was repealed; in the same year, its substance was re-incorporated and codified as Code of Civ. }{ \fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid11281646 Proc. \'a7 377.60.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131 See C}{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid11281646 havez v. }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 Carpenter}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 , }{ \cs23\f45\fs20\cf1\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 111 Cal.}{\cs23\f45\fs20\cf1\insrsid4724131 }{\cs23\f45\fs20\cf1\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 Rptr.}{\cs23\f45\fs20\cf1\insrsid4724131 }{\cs23\f45\fs20\cf1\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 2d 534, 538}{ \cs23\f45\fs20\cf1\insrsid4724131 (2001)}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 (citing Cal. Law Revision Com. com., reprinted at 14 West\rquote s Ann.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8546802 Code Civ. Proc. (2001 supp.) \'a7 377, p.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 23).}}}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 California cases construing that section up until 1992 are instructive for purposes here. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [25]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The right of action given by 7 GCA \'a7 12109 is a new action differing from that which the decedent would have had if he had lived; that is, a wrongful death action is not a continuation or revival of the cause of action subsisting in the decedent b efore his death, but instead is an original and distinct cause of action granted to heirs and personal representatives to recover damages sustained by them by reason of the wrongful death of the decedent.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 } {\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Van Sickel v. United States}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 285 F.2d 87 , 90 (9th Cir. 1960); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Garcia v. State}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 56 Cal. Rptr. 80, 81 (1967); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Pac. Employers Ins. Co. v. Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection & Ins. Co.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 299 P.2d 928, 930 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1956); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Secrest v. Pac. Elec. Ry. Co}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 141 P.2d 747, 747-48 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1943); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Fiske v. Wilkie}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 154 P.2d 725, 727 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1945).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The purpose of the wrongful death statute is to afford compensation to the heirs for the pecuniary loss resulting from the death of their relative.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Kunakoff v. Woods}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 332 P .2d 773, 775 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1958); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Helling v. Lew}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 104 Cal. Rptr. 789, 792 (Dist. Ct. App. 1972); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Alvarez v. Wiley}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 139 Cal. Rptr. 550, 553 (Dist. Ct. App. 1977); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Reyna v. City & County of S.F.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 138 Cal. Rptr. 504, 508 (Dist. Ct. App. 1977). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [26]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab T he pecuniary loss suffered by the heirs or personal representatives because of the death is the measure of damages recoverable under 7 GCA \'a7 12109.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Shebley v. Peters}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 200 P. 364, 366 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1921); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Cossi v. S. Pac. Co}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 110 Cal. App. 110, 112 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1930); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Ure v. Maggio Bros. Co}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 75 P.2d 534, 536 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1938).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 While damages recoverable under this statute are only for pecuniary loss suffered, such loss may include loss of comfort, protection, and society of deceased.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Duclos v. Tashjian}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 90 P.2d 140, 145 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1939).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Although there is no recovery for damages for anguish caused by the death of the decedent under this section,}{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 see Griffey v. Pac. Elec. Ry. Co}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 58 Cal. App. 509, 516 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 19 22), the pecuniary value of society, comfort, and protection that might reasonably be expected had the decedent lived might be considered as recoverable, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Zeller v. Reid}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 101 P.2d 730, 731 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1940), provided that the circumstances show a r easonable probability that the society, comfort, and protection afforded to the surviving parent was of such a character that it would be of pecuniary advantage to the parent, and thus would entail a pecuniary loss to him.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See Fields v. Riley}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 81 Cal. Rptr. 671, 674 (Dist. Ct. App. 1969); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 see also Fuentes v. Tucker}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 187 P.2d 752, 755 (Cal. 1947); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Tyson v. Romey}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 199 P.2d 721, 724-25 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1948). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [27]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Because the complaint in the instant case plainly names the Newbys as the only Plaintiffs an d advances no claim by the estate of their deceased son, Jeromy, to recover for damages suffered by him prior to death to which he would have been personally entitled if he had lived, this is a wrongful death action.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In their October 20, 2008 complaint, th e Newbys advance six theories of negligence liability against the Government, ER, tab 4 at 4-11 (Compl., Oct. 20, 2008), seeking approximately $16 million in damages.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 at 12.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Throughout the complaint, the Newbys maintain that they are bringing the instant action individually to recover for }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 their own personal injury}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , and not for the injury suffered by their deceased son prior to his death.}{\cs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs20\super\insrsid4724131 \chftn }{\insrsid4724131 }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 See}{ \insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 ER, tab 4 at }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 5}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 (Compl.) (\'93As a result of the failure of the defendants to follow Guam law and GPSS Policy regarding care of minors in the Guam Public School System and to act in loco parentis, }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 Plaintiffs Johnny R. Newby and Lynette C. Newby suffered loss and}{\b\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 }{ \i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 injury in the form of emotional distress, witnessing the extended suffering of their minor child, and the eventual loss of life of their son, Jeromy}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 .\'94)}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 (emphasis added)}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 ; }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131 see also }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8596166 id.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 at 7 (\'93 As a result of the failure of the defendants to follow Guam law and GPSS Policy regarding providing security for students within the Southern High School campus and a failure to provide sufficient personnel to secure the campus, }{ \i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 Plaintiffs Johnny R. Newby and Lynette C. Newby suffered loss and}{\b\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 injury in the form of emotional distress, witnessing the extended suffering of their minor child, and the eventual loss of life of their son, Jeromy Paul Castro Newby}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 .\'94)}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 (emphasis added)}{ \fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 ; }{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8596166 id.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 at 8 (\'93As a result of the lack of ordinary care owed by Defendants to Jeromy Paul Castro Newby, }{ \i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 Jeromy was assaulted, injured, and eventually died, causing Plaintiffs to suffer injury.}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 \'94)}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 (emphasis added)}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 ; }{ \i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 id}{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid8596166 .}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 at 10, 11 (\'93}{\i\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 Jeromy\rquote s prolonged and unnecessary suffering and eventual death resulted in injury to Jeromy\rquote s parents, the Plaintiff\rquote s herein}{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid1330238 .\'94}{\fs20\insrsid4724131 ) (emphasis added).}}}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Hence this is a wrongful death action.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 It is an original and distinct cause of action brought by the Newbys in their individual capacity to recover damages for injury suffered by them by reason of the death of their son.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Accordingly,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 if this was not an action against the sovereign}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 7 GCA \'a7 12109 would apply unhindered by the caps of the Government Claims Act, 5 GCA \'a7 6301(b), (c), and the pecuniary loss suffered by the Newbys because of Jeromy\rquote s death would be the measure of damages recoverable under the statute, provided that loss could be reasonably calculated. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [28]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab But this }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 is}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 an action against the sovereign.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [29]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Specifically, this is a wrongful death action brought against the Government pursuant to the limited waiver of sovereign immunity in the Government Claims Act.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Accordingly, this case turns on this court\rquote s interpretation of the Government Claims Act, particularly whether the statute permits recovery beyond the $300,000.00 already received by the Newbys pursuant to the Newby-GMHA settlement, for the same wrongful death. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [30]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We now address this question, and answer in the negative. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 C.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Limited Waiver of Sovereign Immunity in Government Claims Act \par \par [31]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Government enjoys broad sovereign immunity.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Marx v. Gov \rquote t of Guam}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 866 F.2d 294, 298 (9th Cir. 1989); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Sumitomo Const., Co., Ltd. v. Gov\rquote t of Guam}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2001 Guam 23 \'b6 8.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Sovereign immunity can only be waived by duly enacted legislation; absent such legislation, the Government cannot be sued.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Sumitomo Const., Co., Ltd.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2001 Guam 23 \'b6 9 (citation omitted). This court has recognize d that while sovereign immunity is inherent, Congress in the Organic Act of Guam provided a specific mechanism by which that immunity may be waived.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id. }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \'b6 8}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (referencing 48 U.S.C. \'a7 1421(a) (2008)).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The Organic Act provides in pertinent part:}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\dbch\af136\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \hich\af0\dbch\af136\loch\f0 The governme\hich\af0\dbch\af136\loch\f0 nt of Guam shall have the powers set forth in this Chapter, shall have power to sue by such name, and, with the consent of the legislature evidenced by enacted law, may be sued upon any contract entered into with respect to, or any tort committed incident \hich\af0\dbch\af136\loch\f0 \hich\af0\dbch\af136\loch\f0 to, the exercise by the government of Guam of any of its lawful powers. \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 48 U.S.C. \'a7 1421(a) (2008). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [32]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Government Claims Act provides a limited waiver of sovereign immunity for the Government\rquote s torts.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Section 6105 provides in pertinent part: \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Pursu ant to Section 3 of the Organic Act of Guam, the Government of Guam hereby waives immunity from suit, but only as hereinafter provided: \par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 . . . \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (b) }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 for claims in tort}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , arising from the negligent acts of its employees acting for and at the direction of the government of Guam, even though occurring in an activity to which private persons do not engage. . . .}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 5 GCA \'a7 6105 (2005) (emphasis added).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [33]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Pursuant to its power to waive sovereign immunity, the Guam Legislature in the Government Claims Act set a cap on the amount a tort claimant can recover from the Government under the Act.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Section 6301, which lays out the maximum amount recoverable against the Government under the Act, provides in relevant part:}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \'a7 6301. Maximum Limits of Governmental Liability. \par }\pard \ql \fi720\li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 . . . \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (b) The government of Guam, in the case of line agencies, shall be liable in tort for not more than $100,000 in an action for wrongful death, nor for more than $300,000 in any other tort action. \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (c) Each autonomous agency shall be liable for torts committed by it for not more than the amounts stated in subsection (b), above. \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 5 GCA \'a7}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 6301 (2005).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In the instant case, the Superior Court found that the terms of the Newby-GMHA settlement fall within the scope of 7 GCA \'a7 24605, and ruled that }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [a]lthough the alleged actions of [the Government] are not excused, pursuant to the mandates of 5 GCA \'a7 6301 the [Government\rquote s] potential liability has been reached.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER, tab 3 at 7 (Dec. & Order).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 We agree with this reasoning.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [34]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act provides in pertinent part:}{ \cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 {\*\bkmkstart sp_999_7}{\*\bkmkstart SDU_7}{\*\bkmkend sp_999_7}{\*\bkmkend SDU_7} When a release or covenant not to sue or not to enforce judgment is given in good faith to one of two or more persons liable in tort for the same injury or the same wrongful death:{\*\bkmkstart citeas__Cite_as__1999_WL_257425___8__Gua} {\*\bkmkstart sp_999_8}{\*\bkmkstart SDU_8}{\*\bkmkend citeas__Cite_as__1999_WL_257425___8__Gua} \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 1. It does not discharge any of the other tortfeasors from liability from the injury or wrongful death unless its terms so provide, but }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 it reduces the claim against the other to the extent of any amount stipulated by the release or the covenant, or in the amount of the consideration paid for it,}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 whichever is greater[.] {\*\bkmkend sp_999_8}{\*\bkmkend SDU_8}. . . \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\cs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 7 GCA }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \'a7 24605 (2005) (emphasis added). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [35]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab In this case, the Newbys executed a }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Settlement Agreement, Release and Covenant Not to Sue}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 with the GMHA wherein the Newbys received $300,000.00 to settle their Government Claims Act claim against the GMHA, its officers, and agents.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER, tab 5, Exs. A-C (Mot. Dismiss, Dec. 11, 2008).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The Newby-GMHA settlement agreement contained, among others, the following recitals and articles: \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Whereas, on or about October 20, 2006, Jeromy Newby was received by GMHA due to a head injury;}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11289801 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14571282\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Whereas, on or about January 5, 2007, Jeromy Newby passed away while under the care of GMHA;}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11289801 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14571282 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Whereas, on or about May 18, 2007, Claimants filed a Government Claims Act claim against GMHA alleging GMHA failed to adequately and properly respond to Jeromy Newby\rquote s injuries;}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11289801 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14571282 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Whereas, under the Government Claims Act,}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 5 GCA \'a7 6301(b), the maximum}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 GMHA shall be liable for an action for negligence is Three Hundred Thousand}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Dollars ($300,000.00); and}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11289801 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14571282 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Whereas, Claimants and GMHA a re willing to compromise and settle this matter to avoid the burden and expense of litigation. \par . . . \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11289801 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14571282 \par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Claimant and GMHA covenant and agree never to file, initiate, commence, institute, maintain, prosecute, aid or cause to be commenced or prosecuted any action, suit or proceeding, directly and or indirectly, against the other party to this Agreement based upon any claims that are the subject of this Agreement. \par . . . .}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14571282 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14571282\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ER, tab 5, Ex. A at 1, 4. (Mot. Dismiss).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 } {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [36]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys seemingly interpret {\*\bkmkstart OLE_LINK5}{\*\bkmkstart OLE_LINK8}5 GCA \'a7}{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 6301 {\*\bkmkend OLE_LINK5}{\*\bkmkend OLE_LINK8}to provide for two separate tort actions against the Government; one from an autonomous agency, one from a line agency.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 However, as articulated above, this court finds that this is a wrongful death action. }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In other words, this is not }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 any other tort action}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 for purposes of 5 GCA \'a7}{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 6301.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Thus, even if the Newbys were to argue that they could maintain two separate wrongful death actions against the Government\emdash again, one from an autonomous agency, one from a line agency\emdash such an argument would be ultimately fruitless under the facts of this particular case.}{\cs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s19\qj \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 \fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs20\fs20\super\insrsid4724131\charrsid14111709 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid4724131 Similar to this action, the Newby-GMHA settlement was not payable to the Estate of Jeromy Newby for claims Jeromy had against the GMHA prior to his death. Payment was to the Newbys. Under 7 }{\fs20\insrsid4724131\charrsid14111709 GCA \'a7 12109, the claim against the GMHA was similarly a wrongful death claim.}}}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Indeed, under the facts presently before us, we need not address whether section 6301 provides for separate wrongful death caps for line and autonomous agencies or a single wrongful death cap for the Government of Guam as a whole.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The reason for this is because even if the statute provided for separate wrongful death recoveries against the Government as the Newbys suggest, the $300,000.00 Newby-GMHA settlement agreement already exceeds the maximum amount recoverable against the Government for two separate wrongful death claims.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [37]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab In light of this court\rquote s considered position that this is a wrongful death action, and that the Newbys have already recovered $300,000.00, we hold that the Superior Court did not err in finding that the Government Claims Act, 5 GCA \'a7 6101 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., and the Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act, 7 GCA \'a7 24601 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 et seq}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., effectively bar any recovery beyond the $300,000.00 the Newbys have already received pursuant to the Newby-GMHA settlement.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [38]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We now turn to the legality of the damages cap and the prohibition of jury trials in the Government Claims Act. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 D.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Legality of Damages Cap and Prohibition of Jury Trials in Government Claims Act \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [39]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys argue that the damages cap and the prohi bition against jury trials in the Government Claims Act are inorganic and unconstitutional inasmuch as they violate 1) equal protection, 2) due process, 3) the right to trial by jury, and 4) separation of powers.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 We reject each of these arguments in turn. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [40]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We note from the outset that sovereign immunity is the normative baseline for construing limited waivers of sovereign immunity such as that contained in the Government Claims Act.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See Sumitomo Const., Co., Ltd. v. Gov\rquote t of Guam}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 2001 Guam 23 \'b6 25 (citing }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Library of Cong. v. Shaw}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 478 U.S., 310, 318 (1986)).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Accordingly, courts have recognized that legislative bodies have the power to prescribe such limits, and that the limits prescribed are constitutionally valid.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , }{\cs23\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Espinosa v. S. Pac. Transp. Co}{\cs23\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 624 P.2d 162, 167 }{\cs23\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (Or. Ct. App. 1981) (finding that where the legislature indicates the extent to which sovereign immunity has been waived, only the legislature can waive the ceiling on liability set forth in the relevant statute); }{ \cs21\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Flournoy v. State}{\cs21\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 41 Cal. Rptr. 190, 192}{ \cs23\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (Dist. Ct. App. 1965) (approving the conclusion that the legislature may constitutionally alter, modify, or eliminate the rules }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 governing tort liability of public entities)}{\cs23\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ; }{\cs23\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Lowe v. Texas Tech Univ.}{\cs23\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 540 S.W.2d 297, 298 (Tex. 1976) (affirming longstanding precedent that waivers of governmental immunity is a matter addressed to the Legislature); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Easley v. N.Y. State Thruway Auth}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 135 N.E.2d 572, 573 (N.Y. 1956) (finding that the state, as sovereign, may assert, waive, or condition at will, immunity from suit for itself and its agents); }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Brown v. Bd. of Trustees of Town of Hamptonburg, Sch. Dist. No. 4}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 104 N.E.2d 866, 868-69 (N.Y. 1952) (finding that because the rule that the state and its municipal adjuncts may be liable in negligence did not exist at common law, but rather is statutory in origin, any such right granted }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 may be granted upon such conditions as the Legislature, in its wisdom, sees fit to impose.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 1.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Equal Protection \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [41]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys argue that the damages cap in the Government Claims Act violates equal protection.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 This is unpersuasive.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Reasoning that state legislatures have a rational basis for imposing monetary limits on the amount of damages recoverable against government tortfeasors, courts across the country have held that such damage caps do not violate the equal protection clauses of state and federal constitutions.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Packard v. Joint Sch. Dist. No. 171}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 661 P.2d 770, 775 (Idaho Ct. App. 1983) (upholding a $100,000.00 wrongful death recovery limitation in the Idaho Tort Claims Act against an equal protection challenge because under a rational basis test, a fair and substantial relationship exists between the recovery limits and the legislative objective of conserving public funds);} {\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Jetton v. Jacksonville Elec. Auth.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 399 So. 2d 396, 399 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1981) (finding that damages caps do not violate equal protection because a rational relationship exists between the statutory classifications of tort victims and the legislative ob jective of enabling recovery while recognizing that requiring local governments to protect themselves against full liability could impose too heavy a financial burden on local taxpayers); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Seifert v. Standard Paving Co}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ., 355 N.E.2d 537, 541 (Ill. 1976) (finding that the legislature\rquote s power to limit the maximum recovery in a wrongful death action }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 can not be questioned}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 due to the fact that a wrongful death action did not exist at common law and is entirely a creature of statute), }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 overruled on other grounds by}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Rossetti Contracting Co., Inc. v. Court of Claims}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 485 N.E.2d 332, 335 (Ill. 1985); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Cargill\rquote s Estate v. City of Rochester}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 406 A.2d 704, 707-08 (N.H. 1979) (finding that the legislative goals to comprehensively define the liability to which governmental units would be exposed and to limit the financial strain to be imposed on governmental units by large judgments are not arbitrary or irrational and, absent invidious discrimination, the mere existence of a classification does not justify overturning on eq ual protection grounds damage caps set by the legislature); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Stanhope v. Brown County}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 280 N.W.2d 711, 716-20 (Wis. 1979) (unwilling to conclude that a $25,000.00 cap on tort damages recoverable against the government was arbitrary or unreasonable so as to v iolate equal protection guarantees given the fact that courts are not equipped or empowered to make investigations into the financial resources of various governmental bodies). \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [42]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We see no reason to depart from the widely-accepted rule that statutes li miting the amount of damages recoverable against government tortfeasors do not violate equal protection.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par {\listtext\pard\plain\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 2.\tab}}\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11102043 { \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Due Process \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par [43]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys argue that the damages cap in the Government Claims Act violates due process.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Citing a general reluctance to substitute their own judgment for that of the elected legislature regarding what constitutes a reasonable limitation on tort recoveries for bodily injury against governmental units, courts have found that statutes limiting t he amount of damages recoverable against government tortfeasors do not violate the due process guarantees in state and federal constitutions.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Cargill\rquote s Estate}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 406 A.2d 704, 708-09 (finding that although a $50,000.00 statutory limit on tort recovery against the government was dubious in light of escalating costs of medical services, legal expenses, and other{\*\bkmkstart sp_579_669}{\*\bkmkstart SDU_669} {\*\bkmkstart citeas__Cite_as__119_N_H__661___669__406}{\*\bkmkend sp_579_669}{\*\bkmkend SDU_669}{\*\bkmkend citeas__Cite_as__119_N_H__661___669__406} damages likely to be sustained by tort victims, it was not, as a matter of law, }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 so severe as to be \lquote very wide of any reasonable line of demarcation.\rquote }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 (citation omitted);}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Rivera v. Gerner}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 446 A.2d 508, 512 (N.J. 1982) (finding that the legislature, in enacting the Tort Claims Act, reasonably granted injured plaintiffs the right to full recovery from any of the tortfeasors, and that this did not abridge a defendant\rquote s due process rights); }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 accord}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Jetton}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 399 So. 2d 396, 399; }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Crowe v. John W. Harton Mem\rquote l Hosp.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 579 S.W.2d 888, 892-93 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1979).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 We see no reason to depart from precedent. }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 3.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Right to Trial by Jury \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [44]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys argue that the damages cap in the Government Claims Act violate the right to trial by jury.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Statutory caps on damages recoverable against a government have been held not to deny the constitutionally protected right to trial by jury.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Garner v. Covington County}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 624 So.2d 1346, 1351, 1354-55 (Ala. 1993) (finding that statute limiting recovery of damages against governmental entity to $100, 000.00 for bodily injury or death did not violate provision of state constitution guaranteeing right to trial by jury because the legislature\rquote s specification of a dollar limitation on damages recoverable allows for fiscal planning and avoids the risk of devastatingly high judgments).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Garner}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , the court found that, as a constitutional matter, the legislature had the authority to }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 enter the entire field}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 and found further that the legislature was in a }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 superior position}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 to comprehensively govern the laws regulating governmental liability. 624 So.2d 1346, 1354.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Because judgments against government tortfeasors must be paid out of public moneys derived from taxation, }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 reasonable limitation [set by the legislature] on awards against them must be sustained.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 at 1355.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Although the Newbys cite a string of cases in support of their sweeping assertion that section 6301 of the Government Claims Act unconstitutionally denies the right to trial by jury, none of these cases stand for the more specifi c, legally significant proposition that a legislature, in enacting a limited statutory waiver of sovereign immunity, cannot limit that waiver.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [45]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys likewise argue that the prohibition of jury trials in the Government Claims Act is unconstitutio nal because it violates the Seventh Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Appellee\rquote s Br. at 8 (Sept. 14, 2009).}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 This argument is untenable.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 As the Government rightly points out, because the Seventh Amendment\rquote s guarantee of a civil jury trial has never been extended to the States, and because the Organic Act only extends the Seventh Amendment to Guam as it applies to the States, }{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 see}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 48 U.S.C. \'a7 1421b(u) (2008), it follows that the Seventh Amendment does not require a jury trial in civil actions against the Government of Guam.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 4.}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Separation}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 of Powers}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [46]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab The Newbys argue that the damages cap in the Government Claims Act violates the doctrine of separation of powers by essentially transferring judicial powers and duties to the legislative and executive branches.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 They argue that because it limits the judicial branch\rquote s exclusive right to grant a new trial when a jury returns a verdict that is either inadequate or excessive, the cap constitutes an unconstitutional extension of legislative power.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Toward this end, the Newbys do not cite a single case holding that a damages cap arising from a legislature\rquote s limited waiver of sovereign immunity violates the separation of powers doctrine.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Indeed, statutory caps on damages recoverable against a government have been held not to violate the doctrine.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 See}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 e.g.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 ,}{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Cauley v. City of Jacksonville}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , 403 So. 2d 379, 387 (Fla. 1981).}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 In }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Cauley}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 , a woman injured in a car accident brought a tort action against the city.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 The court, in considering a statute that set a cap on damages available against the municipality, held that said statute was related to a }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 permissible legislative objective}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 and was }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 "}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 neither discriminatory, arbitrary, nor oppressive in its application.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 " }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id.}{ \i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Moreover, the damages cap enshrined in that state\rquote s statute did not violate the right to due process, jury trial, access to courts, or the separation of powers rule.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\i\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 Id. \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 V. CONCLUSION \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4724131 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [47]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab We find that the Government Claims Act and the Contribution Among Joint Tortfeasors Act effectively bar any recovery by the Newby s against the Government for the same wrongful death beyond the $300,000.00 they already received pursuant to the Newby-GMHA settlement.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131 }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 There is no genuine issue of any material fact in the case before us and the Government is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law.\~ Thus, summary judgment in favor of the Government is proper.\~ In addition, we find that the damages cap and the prohibition against jury trials in the Government Claims Act are neither inorg}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182 anic and nor unconstitutional.}{ \lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 [48]}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \tab Accordingly, the Superior Court\rquote s grant of the Government\rquote s motion is }{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 AFFIRMED}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 .}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid4724131 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182\charrsid14640182 F. PHILIP CARBULLIDO}{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182\charrsid14640182 Associate Justice}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182\charrsid14640182 KATHERINE A. MARAMAN}{ \b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par }{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182\charrsid14640182 Associate Justice}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182\charrsid14640182 \par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14640182 {\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14640182\charrsid14640182 ROBERT J. TORRE}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4724131\charrsid14640182 \par Chief Justice}{\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1972231\charrsid14640182 \par }}