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{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9392998 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9392998 
IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE FIJI ISLANDS
\par AT SUVA}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 
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\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5318095 S}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (Fiji Co}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 urt of Appeal No AAU0057 of 2006S}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 )
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\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 (}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Petitioner}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 )}{
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\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9392998 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1137614 THE STATE
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 (}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Respondent}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 )}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
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\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1403636 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998\charrsid2781816 Coram}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11862754\charrsid2781816 :}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11862754  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The Hon Justice Keith Ma}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 son, Judge of the Supreme Court}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13203731 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The Hon Justice Kenneth Handley, Judge of the Supreme Court}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13203731 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The Ho}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14359011 n}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  Justice Mark Weinberg, Judge of the Supreme Court}{
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\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Monday, 13}{\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2781816 th}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 October 2008, Suva}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 
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\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13203731\charrsid6255741 The}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  Petitioner in Person
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\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9392998 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998\charrsid2781816 Date of Judgment:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3107411 18}{\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid3107411\charrsid2781816 th}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3107411  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11862754 
December 2008, Suva}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9392998 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9392998 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9392998 JUDGMENT OF THE COURT
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11862754 
\par [1] }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The appellant was charged on an in}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11862754 dictment containing three counts}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  of attempt to pervert the course of justic}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11862754 e. The alleged offences occurred in }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 separate days.
\par 
\par [2]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 After the trial judge ruled admissible the electroni}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3107411 
c recording of a secretly taped }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 conversation on a particular day, the appellant pleaded guilty to the third count, which r}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032 
elated to that event. He did so }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 on the apparently agreed basis that he could then appeal his conviction on the ground that the recording was inadmissible.}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12073042\charrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12073042 [3] }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
That appeal was dismissed by the Court of Appeal. This further appeal is brought by leave of the Court of Appeal which certified a question of significant public importance, namely:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12073042\charrsid6255741 
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To what extent is the State permitted or justified in conducting covert surveillance with or witho}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8474361 ut a warrant having regard to S}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 ections}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816  26, 28(1)}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
(e) and 37 of the Constitution of the Republic of the Fiji Islands?}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12073042\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 We shall examine aspects of this broad constitutional question although it}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032  will become apparent }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 that the appeal can be determined on a narrower basis.}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032 

\par 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [4]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
The case established against the appellant was summarised as follows in}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032  the remarks on sentencing:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid3767032 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid736004 On the 24}{
\b\i\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid2781816 th}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
 July 2003 the trial was due to start in the Magistrates Court at Suva of one Sahadat Attai Khan. He was charged with corruptly seeking, as a Land T}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid736004 ransport Authority Officer, $200}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004  f}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004\charrsid736004 or the registration of a second-}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
hand vehicle. The owner of the car and the person from whom it was alleged he had soug}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid736004 ht the money was Rajendra Naraya}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 n. The Accused was Mr Khan}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid14359011 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
s defence counsel. Subsequently in February 2005 Mr Khan was acquitted of that charge.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid736004 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid3767032 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 Prior to the Khan hearing, on 22}{
\b\i\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2781816 nd}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004\charrsid736004  July 200}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
3, Mr Narayan informed the investigating officer that he had been approached by the Accused. The police took advice from the Director of Public Prosecutions Office. It was then agreed to give Mr N}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11095846 
a}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 rayan a digital}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004\charrsid736004  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
recording device to record any further conversation with the Accused on the topic. Mr Narayan agreed to this course}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 .
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4543071 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3767032\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13245151\charrsid736004 On the next day, }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 23}{
\b\i\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2781816 rd}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
 July 2003, a conversation took place between the Accused and Mr Narayan. It started when they were in a vehicle travelling to the scene of an accident in which the Accused}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid11095846 '}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 s son had been o
ne of the drivers. In the course of the conversation the Accused mentioned the court case the next day. He advised Mr Narayan to change his evidence to some extent, and the Accused told him what to say in its place.}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13245151\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4543071 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13245151\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4543071 The original evidence from M}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
r Narayan was that Mr Khan had taken the }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9516793\charrsid736004 $}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
200 from him and placed it under a book. Mr Khan then pulled out a file pretending to read it in order to hide his a}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4543071 ctions from a woman who had com}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 e to the door of his office.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9516793\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9516793\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 The Accused told Mr Narayan to keep to his origi
nal story which he need not lie about. But that when he came to describ}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1062148 e handing over the money to Mr K}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
han he should say that he hid it under a book or register because a woman came into the room. He was to say that he never actually handed the money over 
to Mr Khan. He should add that Mr Khan did not see him do any of this. The rest he could leave to the Accused.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9516793\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
The Accused promised that once his client was acquitted he would sue the police. He would not make Mr Narayan a party to those proc}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid736004 eedings. Instead he would pay M}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 r Narayan an unspecified sum of money out of the lump sum obtained thereby in damages.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 The Accused was interviewed by police under caution on }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14483466 24}{\b\i\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid14483466\charrsid2781816 th}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
 July 2003. He availed himself of his constitutional
 right to consult a lawyer, and did so before the main questioning commenced. He said he had been practising as a barrister and solicitor since 1994, and was admitted as such in New Zealand, Fiji, Tasmania and Queensland. He was a Commissioner for Oaths a
nd a Notary Public.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
When it was suggested that he had met the complainant and asked him to change one part of his story in the corruption case against Attai Khan, the Accused said the allegation was false. More details of the conversation were put to him b
ut he said they were false.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid736004 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
He asserted that he wanted to save Attai Khan in his court case because he believed he was innocent. He denied discussing anything to do with the case with Mr Narayan. At least a part of the}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797\charrsid736004 digital}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
 recording was played to the Accused and he denied that it included his voice. He denied that one of the other voices was Mr Narayan}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1062148 '}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 s. He was positive the voice was not his own. He said Mr Narayan was lying in saying that it was his voice. He also alleged Mr}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797\charrsid736004  Narayan had offered him $45,000}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004  if he could have Attai Khan convicted for corruption}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 .}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
In these proceedings the Accused has accepted that the translation of the recordings in Hindi is essentially correct save for a few inconsequential inaccuracies. He 
now accepts that it was indeed his voice on the recording, as well as that of Mr Narayan. He admits the offence, and admits that he had made the approach to Mr Narayan to change his evidence, what Mr Raza called }{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 one stupid act}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 , and }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 one act of madness.}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 Besides being a lawyer in private practice, the Accused has no previous convictions.}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561 
\par [5]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12400385  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
There is in Fiji no statutory regulation, let alone prohibition, of the use of surveillance devices enabling the secret recording of conversations whether for private or police purposes. What happene}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8522193 d}
{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  in this situation involved no conduct contravening }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14760762\charrsid6255741 tortuous}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  or equitable norms under the general law (see generally }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid11352561 Malone v. Metropolitan Police Commissioner }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid11352561 [1979] Ch 344).
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561 [}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 6]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
The appellant doubtlessly expected Mr Narayan to keep the nefarious proposal to himself. The conversation took place in the appellant's motor vehicle as it was parked inside his home compound, as it was driv}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10907622 en along and as it was parked at}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 a designated spot at his work place. The appellant was ignorant of the recording device. Mr Narayan, on the other hand, wanted the conversation to 
be recorded and made available to the police. The device used did not transmit sound, but merely recorded it.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11352561 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [7]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Sections 26 an}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12400385 d 28(1}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8522193 )(}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 e) and 37 of the}{
\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid11352561  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid4019643 Constitution}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  provide:
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid10819935 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 26.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 - }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829\charrsid10819935 (1}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 
) Every person has the right to be secure against unreasonable search of his or her person or property and against unreasonable seizure of his or her property.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10819935\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid10819935 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 (2) Search or seizure is not permissible otherwise than under the authority of law.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid4019643 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10819935 28.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid10819935  - }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829\charrsid10819935 (1}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 ) Every person charged with an offence has the right:}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10907622 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10907622\charrsid10907622 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid10907622 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10907622 \'85}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid2236797 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829\charrsid10819935 (e) }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 
not to have unlawfully obtained evidence adduce}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid10819935 d against him or her unless the }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 
interests of justice require it to be admitted.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid10819935 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 37. -}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid10819935  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 (1) Every person has the right to personal privacy, i}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829\charrsid10819935 ncluding the right to privacy}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10819935  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 of}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643\charrsid10819935  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 personal communications.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829\charrsid10819935 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10819935\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid10819935 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 (2) Th}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10819935 
e right set out in subsection (1}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 ) may be made subject to such limitations prescribed by law as are reasonable and justifiable in a free and democratic society}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 .}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10819935 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4019643 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829 [8]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10907622  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The appellant accepted that Mr Narayan might give oral evidence of the}
{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 relevant conversation. In the words of the learned primary judge, Gaffes J:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829 

\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid15956829 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9051452\charrsid9051452 I}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452 t is to the electronic nature of, almost to the relentless accuracy of}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9051452 ,}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452  the recorded conversation, to which [the appellant}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10907622 '}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452 s] objection is directed}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9051452\charrsid9051452 .}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [9]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
It was also common ground before Gates J that Mr Narayan was to be treated as acting as an agent of the State, when recording the conversation; and that the police investigators acted in good faith in relati
on to a bona fide police inquiry. His Lordship also held that the police held a reasonable suspicion that a crime was being committed for which unimpeachable evidence by way of a recording device could be obtained. There was also no entrapment given that 
the initial approach had allegedly been made by the accused.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [10]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
It was further held that the evidence was relevant and capable of being}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9051452 probative of guilt.}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  It was not minimal or simply prejudicial. Its meaning,}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
worth or cogency was yet to be assessed at the time of its admission. As indicated, the appellant pleaded guilty after its admission.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15956829 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 [11}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
The nub of the ruling to admit the evidence is in para [69] of Ruling No 4:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid9051452 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452 
The Accused allegedly spoke to the witness Narayan. Narayan will testify without lawful objection as to that conversation. Privacy will be breached thereby. Privacy will not be breached over a matter of mere ti}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5253235 t}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452 tle tattle. Criminal conduct is alleged. For 
this public interest reason, a matter of bona fide neutral law enforcement, a recording has been reasonably created giving rise to an unimpeachable or near unimpeachable, permanent account of that conversation. The invasion of privacy by }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9051452 this means for legitimate S}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5253235 t}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid9051452 
ate reasons is in accordance with law. Its admissibility }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid9051452 is in the interests of justice.}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid2781816 "}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797\charrsid9051452 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [12]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The Court of Appeal held (at [16]):}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid2236797 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5253235 We conclude that the }{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5253235 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13261124 search}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5253235 '}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13261124  in this case was not unlawful and therefore not in breach of clauses 26 or 37 of t
he Constitution. Further, whether or not it is lawful, the interests of justice require the evidence of it to be admitted}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5253235  at trial, and so, clause 28(1)}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13261124 (e) does not require to exclude it. In so deciding w}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13261124 e considered, as did the trial J}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13261124 udge, the fact that 
evidence of what was said would in any event be given by Mr Narayan, that the recordings were the basic evidence of what was said and that the transcripts were accepted (in writing) by the defence as being accurate. Further, the offence was serious, invol
ving an officer of the Court seeking the giving of false evidence. There was no significant factor indicating a special need of confidence or privacy that should be protected. The recordings related to a repetition of the offence already committed.}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797\charrsid13261124 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2236797 {\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5253235 The constitutional issues stated
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797\charrsid5253235 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [13]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The appellant's unreasonable search and/or seizure clai}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5253235 m deriving from ss 26 and 28(1}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8204964 )}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8204964\charrsid6255741 (}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 e) of the }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2236797 Constitution}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2236797  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
proceeded as follows: The clandestine recording of the Narayan conversation amounted to an }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 unreasonable search}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  of the appellant's person or property and/or an }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 unreasonable seizure}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  of his property, contrary }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4394027 to the right protected by s 26(1}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ). There}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8204964 was no }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8204964 authority of law}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8204964  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8204964 for such interference. The recording was therefore unlawfully obtained. It was inadmissible because }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8204964 the interests}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4394027  of justice [did not] require it}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8204964  to be admitted}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8204964  into evidence.}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [14]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
The State submitted that there was no search of the appellant's person or property and no seizure of his property.}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
Alternatively, any; search and/or seizure was re
asonable in the circumstances. It relied, in part, upon the very existence of the constitutional right of privacy, pointing out that other countries (including the United States and Canada) that have given an extended meaning to }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 search or seizure}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  have done so in circumstances where there was no express constitutional protection of privacy.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [15]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The appellant's privacy clai}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4394027 m deriving from ss 37 and 28(1)}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (e) proceeded as follows: The secret recording of the conversation at the instigati
on of the police infringed his }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 right to personal privacy}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4394027  guaranteed by s37}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (1). There was no qualification of that right }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 prescribed by law}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (cf s}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12400385  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 37(2)) in the sense of being positively authorised by statute or some common taw rule. [The common law principle that }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 everything is per}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004 mitted except what is expressly }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 forbidden}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  of which Megarry VC spoke in }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2236797 Malone v}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid2236797  Metropolitan Police Commissioner}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 at 357 may be placed to one side.] The evidence obtained in breach of the constitutional right was therefore unlawfully obtained, with the consequence that its admission could only be justified }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 if the interests of justice require[d] it to be admitted}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4394027  (cf s.28(1)}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (e)). They did not.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10890800 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [16]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The State denied that any aspect of the constitutional }
{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 right to personal privacy}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  was involved, let alone infringed. Alternatively, if the evidence in the recording was obtained unlawfully, the interests of justice required it to be admitted.
\par 
\par }{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid4394027 Overseas authorities
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10890800 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2891974 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15020722 [17]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
The researches of counsel, supplemented by some researches of our own as to New Zealand cases not drawn to our attention, revealed several strands of overseas authorities as to the scope of analogous constitutional models. While each constitutional provis
i
on differs to some degree from the provisions and context of the Fijian material with which this Court is ultimately concerned, the authorities expound the underlying issues. They also reveal differing approaches to the question whether a person in the ap
pellant's position, whose criminality is recorded through }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 participant surveillance}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 , has a legitimate expectation of privacy.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10890800 
\par }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 (a) }{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid4394027 European Co}{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2891974\charrsid4394027 
nvention on Hu}{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid4394027 man Rights and Freedoms}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10890800 
\par [18]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 In }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid4746369 Malone v Metropolitan Police Commissioner}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4746369 ,}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  Megarry VC held that the
re was no general right to privacy under English common law. It followed that government-authorised telephone tapping conducted by the police in the context of criminal investigations constituted no contractual, tortious or equitable violation of a househ
older's rights. Mr Malone took his complaint to the European Court of Human Rights alleging a breach of Article 8 of the }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10890800 European Convention on Human Rights and Freedoms}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 .
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10890800 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [19]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Article 8 of that Convention provides:}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid16656157 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157\charrsid16656157 1}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 
. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2781816 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157\charrsid2781816 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid736004 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157\charrsid16656157 2.}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12400385  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 There shall be no interference by public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a 
democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157  of disorder or crime, for the }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 .}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid736004 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [20]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 In }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157\charrsid16656157 K}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 lass v Federal Republic of German}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
(1978) 2 EHRR 214, the European Court of Human Rights had held (at [41]) that secret surveillance of telephone conversations amounted to an interference with the exercise of the right set forth in Article 8(1) of the European Convention. When }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 Malone v United Kingdom}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 (1985) 7 EHRR 14 came to the European Court of Human Rights it was accepted that telephone conversations were covered by the notions of }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 private life}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  and }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 correspondence}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (See (1985) 1 EHRR 14 at [64]. See also }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 R v Khan}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  [1997] AC 558 at 581-2.)}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4746369  The European Court of Hum}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
an Rights held, in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 Malone}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8852824 , that the breach of Article 8}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
(1) was not justified under the terms of Article 8(2): it was not }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 in accordance with the law}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  in the
 sense of being positively authorised by a sufficiently defined and publicly accessible legal authority. There was no effective basis for scrutiny of an unfettered police power.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 
\par [21}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 This ruling led the United Kingdom to 
enact legislation in 1985 regulating surveillance of this nature. Subsequently the legislation was extended to surveillance by other electronic means.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [22]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
Our limited researches disclose that Article 8 does not extend to protect against the collection of information through covert investigative techniques directed at those already involved in criminal activity (Helen Fenwick, }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 Civil Liberties and Human Rights}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 , 4}{\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid16656157\charrsid8655881 th}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 ed 2007,}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  pp 1069, 1298-9, citing }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 Ludi v Switzerland}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (1993) 15 EHRR 173). There is, of course,
 an express qualification to this effect in Article 8(2) (set out above).
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 
\par }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 (}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 b) }{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281264\charrsid8852824 Fourth Amendm}{
\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8852824 ent to United States Constitution}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid16656157 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid16656157 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [23]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281264 The Fourth Amendment provides:}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid15030257 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly
 describing the place to be searched, and the persons or the persons or things to be seized.}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004\charrsid10096277 [24]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10096277  In }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10096277 Katz v The United States}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10096277  389 US 347 (1967) the United States Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment protection against unreasonable search or seizur
e extended to the recording of oral statements, independent of trespass considerations. FBI agents had attached a listening and recording device outside a public telephone booth from which Katz had placed his calls. Evidence thereby derived was held inadm
issible in a prosecution for transmitting betting information across state lines.}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004 [25]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
It may be observed that (a) the Fourth Amendment is not expressed in identical terms to s.26 of the Fijian Constitution: (b) these is no express privacy guarantee in the
 United States Constitution, although privacy notions have become part of the Fourth Amendment jurisprudence; (c) in Katz, the Court overruled its earlier decision in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 
Olmstead v United States}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (1928) 277 US 438 which had held that the language of the Fourth
 Amendment did not extend to surveillance that did not involve trespass or the seizure of property; (d) the majority reasoning in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  proceeded from the basis that the surveillance in question could have been authorised by warrant (see at 354-6); (e) }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  did not involve any testimony by a party to the intercepted conversation; (f) the decision in }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 to quash the conviction proceeded from the application of the American principle that unlawfully obtained evidence is }{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8852824 per se}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  inadmissible (}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8852824 cf Fijian Constitution, s 28(1)}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (e)); and (g) }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
does not apply to participant surveillance (ie involving one party to a conversation surreptitiously recording it as agent for the police) (see below).}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004 
\par 
\par [26]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 As to }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 s}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 central holding that surveillance of a conversation by listening}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
device fell within the Fourth Amendment, we note the dissenting view of}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Black J in that case, who followed }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Olmstead}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  in holding that}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 eavesdropping fell outside the ambit of the Fourth Amendment. He said}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14834497  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (at 365):
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid15030257 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 
The first clause protects }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid14834497 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures ....}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid14834497 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 
 These words connote the idea of tangible things with size, form, and weight, things capable of being searched, seized, or both. The second clause of the Amendment still further establishes its Framers}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid14834497 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257  purpose to limit its protection to tangible things by providing that no warrants shall issue but those }{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid14834497 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid14834497 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257  A conversation overhea}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14182378 rd by 
eavesdropping, whether by}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257  plain snooping or wiretapping, is not tangible and, under the normally accepted meanings of the words, can neither be searched nor seized. }{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [27]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
Significantly, the United States Supreme Court has confined the scope of }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  in a 
presently material fashion. In }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 United States v White}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 (1971) 401 US 745, a plurality of four justices (White J, joined by Burger CJ, Stewart J and Blackmun J) held that the Government's use of agents who themselves record the contents of conversations with 
an accused did not violate the Fourth Amendment; and that }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
did not render inadmissible evidence of such a conversation transmitted by an electronic device. In doing so, the judges affirmed the continuing authority of the pre-}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 decision of }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 Lopez v }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 United States}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (1963) 373 US 427. The four justices were joined by Black J whose dissent in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15030257 Katz}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  has already been noted. Since the reasoning of the plurality bears on the privacy issue in the present appea}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8389437 
l it is necessary to set it out.}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  White J said (at 751-2, some citations omitted):
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid736004 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
Concededly a police agent who conceals his police connections may write down for official use his conversations with a defendant}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 and testify concerning them, without a warrant authorizing his encounters with the defendant and without oth}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11298640 
erwise violating the latter}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11298640\charrsid8389437 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11298640 s F}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
ourth Amendment rights.... For constitutional purposes, no different result is required if the agent instead of immed
iately reporting and transcribing his conversations with defendant, either (1) simultaneously records them with electronic equipment which he is carrying on his person...; or }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952 
(2) carries radio equipment which simultaneously transmits the conversations either to recording equipment located elsewhere or to other agents monito}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11279227\charrsid8667952 
ring the transmitting frequency}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952  ...If the conduct and revelations of an agent operating without electronic equipment do not invade the defendant}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952 s constitutionally justifiable expectation
s of privacy, neither does a simultaneous recording of the same conversations made by the agent or by others from transmissions received from the agent to whom the defendant is talking and whose trustworthiness the defendant necessarily risks.}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8389437 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8389437 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267\charrsid8389437 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid1120267 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 Our problem
 is not what the privacy expectations of particular defendants in particular situations may be or the extent to which they may in fact have relied on the discretion of their companions. Very probably, individual defendants neither know nor suspect that th
e
ir colleagues have gone or will go to the police or are carrying recorders or transmitters. Otherwise, conversation would cease and our problem with these encounters would be nonexistent or far different from those now before us. Our problem, in terms of 
the principles announced in Katz, is what expectations of privacy are constitutionally }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11279227 justifiable}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
 - what expectations the Fourth Amendment will protect in the absence of a warrant. So far, the law permits the frustration of actual expectations of privacy
 by permitting authorities to use the testimony of those associates who for one reason or another have determined to turn to the police, as well as by authorizing the use of informants in the manner e}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11279227 xemplified by Hoffa and Lewes. I}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 f the law gives no prote
ction to the wrongdoer whose trusted accomplice is or becomes a police agent, neither should it protect him when that same agent has recorded or transmitted the conversations which are later offered in evidence to prove the State}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 s case. See Lopez v. United States}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952 
, 373 U.S. 427 (1963).}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8667952 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [28]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Any uncertainty as to the authority of}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267\charrsid1120267 Lopez}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  and}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 White}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  in the United States was put to rest in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 United States v Cacares}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (1979) 440 U}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid7239677 S 741 where, speaking for seven}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 judges, Stevens J affi}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 rmed the reasoning in the two}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid736004  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4610378 earlier cases. Stevens J}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  referred (at 750) to }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 Lopez}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 as having repudiated any suggestion that the defendant had a }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid3957161 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
constitutional right to rely on possible flaws in the agent}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid3957161 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 s memory}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid3957161 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 . He concluded that }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 the risk that petitioner took in offering a bribe to }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 [the IRS agent in }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid4610378 Lopez]}{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
fairly included the risk that the offer would be accurately reproduced in court, whether by faultless memory or mechanical recording}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 .}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4610378 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 (c) }{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8667952 
Article 8 of Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [29]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
Article 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that: }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12529075 
Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid7435889\charrsid12529075 .}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [30]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 There is no express privacy 
right in the Canadian Charter, but Article 8 has been consistently construed liberally, extending to protect a person's reasonable expectation of privacy. In }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 Duarte}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267\charrsid1120267  v}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267  The Queen}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (1990) 65 DLR 4}{
\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 th}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid7435889  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
240, the Canadian Supreme Court held that this Article, like the Fourth Amendment, extends to prohibit warrantless surveillance by the police. But the Court departed from the abov}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267 
ementioned American line of }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267\charrsid1120267 Lopez}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 and }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 White}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 , holding that there was no basis in principle for excluding participant surveillance f}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8667952 rom the scope of the protection}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  afforded by Article 8.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267 [31}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
In this regard, the Canadian Court followed the decision of the Supreme Court of Alaska in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 State of Alaska v Glass}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  583 P 2d 872 (1978). There, the police had fitted are informant with a radio transmittin
g device. The informant entered a drug supplier's home and effected a purchase of heroin the details of which were monitored and recorded by police officers located nearby. No warrant had been obtained. This conduct was found to have infringed an Alaskan 
constitutional }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 right... to privacy}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 . The Alaskan Court held (at [3]) that:
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid1120267 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
We believe that one who engages in a private conversation is... entitled to assume that his words will not be broadcast or recorded absent his consent or a warrant}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid7435889\charrsid1120267 .}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267 [32]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 In }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid7435889 Glass}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid7435889 s Case}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 , the Alaskan Court adopted t}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13326989 he reasoning of Harla}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267 n J in }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14760762 K}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267\charrsid1120267 at}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 z }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 where (at 361) he set forth a dual requirement before the Fourth Amendment extended beyond the protection of property to the protection of people: first, the party concerned must hav
e exhibited an actual (subjective) expectation of privacy; and, second, the expectation must be one that society was prepared to recognise as reasonable. It will be seen that the New Zealand case law imports this second limitation, which becomes critical 
to the disposition of this appeal.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid1120267 [33]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Returning to }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid7435889 Duarte,}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 the leading judgment of La Forest J concluded that it was illogical to distinguish between participant and third party surveillance. Warrantless surreptitious recording in either case }{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12400385 annihilate}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 [d] the very impo}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3826966 rtant right to determine to whom}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267  we speak, i.e. the right to choose the range of our auditors}{
\b\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 .}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8655881\charrsid8655881 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 La Forest J cited with approval (at 256) a passage from a decision of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania (}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 Commonwealth v Schae}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13326989 f}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 fer }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3826966 536 A 2d 354, 365 (1987))}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 :}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
Every speaker knows and accepts as a }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13188949 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 condition: of human society}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13188949 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
 that his listener may go to the police, but he does not intend by speaking to give up the right to exclude the police from his home. But if the police are simul
taneously recording every word, they are already there, in the home, uninvited, contrary to every reasonable expectation that most people in society still have.}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [34]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 La Forest J summari}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3826966 sed his views as follows (at 260}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ), }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12529075 emphasis in original:}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12400385 
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid12400385 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 To conclud
e, the Charter is not meant to protect us against a poor choice of friends. If our }{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 '}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 friend}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 ' }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 turns out to be an informer, and we are convicted}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid27299  }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
on the strength of his testimony, that may be unfortunate for us. But the Charter is meant to guarantee the right to be secure against unreasonable search and seizure. A conversation with an informer does not amount to a search and seizure within the mean
ing of the Charter. Surreptitious electronic reception and recording of a private conversation does. Such recording, moreover, should be viewed as a search and seizure in all circumstances save where }{
\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12529075 all}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267  parties to the conversation have expressly consented to its being recorded.}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1120267 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [35}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 ]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
Nevertheless, the conviction in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10572465 Duarte}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid10572465  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
was upheld on the basis that the evidence, though unlawfully obtained, was admissible by application of s.24(2) of the Charter which provided that evidence that was obtained in a manner t
hat infringed or denied any right or freedom guaranteed under the Charter shall be excluded if it is established that, having regard to all the circumstances, its admission would bring the administration of justice into disrepute (cf Fi}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10572465 jian Constitution, s 28(1)(e)).}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 Applying that provision, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the appellant had failed to establish that the evidence should be excluded. The Court said (at 262 per La Forest J)}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid10572465 :}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid3677377 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid3677377 [}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid3677377 The factors to be considered include]:
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5980732 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - what kind of evidence was obtained?}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - what Charier right was infringed?}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 

\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - was the Charter violation serious or was it of a merely technical nature?}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - was it deliberate, wilful or flagrant, or was i}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377 t}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732  i}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 nadvertent or committed in good}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 faith?}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - did it occur in circumstances of urgency or necessity?}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - were there other investigatory techniques available?}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - would the evidence h}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377 
ave been obtained in any event?
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377\charrsid3677377 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - is the offence serious?}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - is the evidence essential to substantiate the charge?}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid12926616\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0\pararsid3677377 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 - are other remedies available?}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 

\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 See also }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 Bunnin}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377 g}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732  v Cross}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 (1977) 141 CLR 54 of 78-80 for a comparable checklist.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 (d) }{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid3677377 
Section 21 of New Zealand}{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid3677377  Bill of Rights}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257\charrsid12400385 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [36]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 This provision affirms that:
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid8214737 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid5980732 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 
Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377 , whether of the person, propert}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 y, }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid5980732 or correspondence or otherwise.}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 

\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 [37]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 Its scope has been addressed in a series of decisions by the Court }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid3677377 of}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  Appeal of New Zealand: }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v A}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  [1994] 1 NZLR 429: }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v Barlow}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 (1995) 14 CRNZ 9; }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v Grayson and Taylor}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  [1997] 1 NZLR 399; }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v Fraser}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  [1997] 2 }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2182551 NZLR 442;}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v Smith}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  [2000] 3 NZLR 656.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [38]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 In }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v A}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 , the Court (with the exception of Casey J at 440) appeared to assume }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828\charrsid6255741 rather}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  than conclude that participant surveillance was search and seizu
re within s. 21. The Court was, however, unanimous in holding that the crux of any s.21 inquiry was whether the intrusion was unreasonable and that this involved weighing all relevant public interest considerations and their application to the particular 
case. Recording by a participant was not unreasonable where there was a serious crime involved (solicitation to murder in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 R v A}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ). Merely because a prior judicial warrant was unavailable or had not been obtained did not conclude the matter (contrast }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 Malone v United Kingdom}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732 ). The Court followed }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid5980732 Lopez}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 and }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 White}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  in preference to }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 Duarte}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 .
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [39]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
Richardson J stated (at 436-7) four reasons of principle and public policy affecting New Zealand society which led him to conclude that participant recording as such was not unreasonable search and seizure:}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid5980732 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 
1. It is not unlawful for any participant to record a discussion surreptitiously. Prior judicial approval is neither required nor available.... [T]here is no basis in parliame
ntary consideration of electronic surveillance for the Courts to conclude that public policy requires treating participant recording as inherently destructive of basic values.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid5980732 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 2 Advances in information technolog}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14287286 
y change our lives and thinking}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 .... New Zealanders are well aware of the ease with which discussion may be recorded electronically. They see advantages as well as risks t}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14287286 o fair dealing of doing so.... I}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 n my judgment it i}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828 
s going too far to say that [}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 underlying privacy] values are inevitably imperille
d by any recording of any conversation whatever the circumstances. It is, I repeat, a matter of time, place and circumstance.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid5980732 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 
3. The expectation of privacy is always important but it is not the only consideration in determining whether a search or seizure
 is unreasonable. Legitimate state interests including those of law enforcement are also relevant. Rather than being dependent on the recollection sand demeanour of the participants as witnesses, the availability in any proceedings of an untampered with r
ecording of the conversation exactly as it occurred is a protection for prosecution and defence alike.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid27299 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5980732\charrsid5980732 4. }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 Characterising}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482  participant recording as always constituting}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732  unreasonable }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828 
search and seizure would have significant}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 consequences}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828  contrary 
}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482 to public interest. First, if participant recording is a breach of s.21}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 
 it should taint the discussion and require prima facie exclusion of any evidence of what was said. If}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid27299  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5980732 
invasion of privacy is the touchstone that occurs even if the electronic recording is not tendered in evidence. Second, it would probably inhibit the police from wiring a police informer for safety reasons....
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [40] We respectfully adopt this reasoning and would apply it even to a constitutional situation like that in Fiji, where there are separate gu}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4787828 arantees in relation to search/}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
seizure and privacy. That is because privacy values underpin the United States, Canadian and New Zealand protections against unreasonable search and seizure and because reasonablenes
s is, in any event, a touchstone of privacy and any expectation of privacy (see also }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid4787828 Malone v Metropolitan Police }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid73196 Commissioner}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid73196\charrsid73196  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid73196 at}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  376).
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [41] In }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid73196 R v Barlow}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
, strong doubts were cast on the proposition that the electronic recording of a conversation by a participant constituted search and seizure within s.21 (see passages set out in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid73196 
R v Fraser }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 at 448).
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid73196 [42]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 In }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 R v Fraser}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
, these doubts were repeated, with the Court again affirming that, in most cases, it was more productive to address first the issue of unrea
sonableness. The Court pointed out (at 451-2) that the availability of a warrant was a material factor in determining the reasonableness or otherwise of a search without warrant. Since there was no statutory regime for authorising (or prohibiting) video s
urveillance this was a significant pointer to reasonableness. The Court held (at 452, emphasis added) that:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482\charrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid73196 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 While w
e accept that the reasonableness of the search is not to be measured by the results, it is entirely appropriate to have regard to the known circumstances in which the search is undertaken. It is not an abstract inquiry into which the ordinary citizen migh
t reasonably be subjected to by the police. Rather i}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5643933 t}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 
 is a question of the degree of scrutiny by the authorities the person whose rights are said to}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid27299  }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 
have been violated might be reasonably subjected to in the circumstances}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid14287286 , }{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 determined b}{
\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid73196 y}{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482  reference to standards of the community as to the respect for privacy}{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 .}{\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid27299 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [43]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 In }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 R v Smith}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
, these principles were restated and the Canadian approach to search and seizure stated in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 Duarte}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 was expressly rejected. The Court noted that }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 Duarte}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 had been subjected to an extensive critique by Professor Hogg in his }{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5643933 Const}{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid73196\charrsid5643933 ituti}{
\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid5643933 onal Law of }{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15160766\charrsid5643933 Canada}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15160766 , 4}{
\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langnp2057\insrsid15160766\charrsid13188949 th}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15160766  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid5643933 ed 1997, para 45.5}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 (b). The Court observed (at [50]) that:}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid13042482 {\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15160766 In }{
\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15160766\charrsid15160766 Barl}{\b\i\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15160766 ow}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 
 where conversations between a friend of the accused, acting as it happened as ag
ent for the State, and the accused were recorded, the court held that participant recording was not inherently unreasonable where its purpose was to obtain a full and correct record and enhance the reliability of the evidence to be given....}{
\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816\charrsid12926616 "}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12926616 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482\charrsid12926616 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 Concl}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482\charrsid12926616 usions 
as to the scope of the Fiji}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid12926616 an provisions
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
[44] There are no controlling precedents discussing the scope of the constitutional guarantees invoked by the appellant. The overseas cases referred to above offer guidance, but they do not speak in unison and ther
e is no material suggesting that any particular approach was in the contemplation of those involved in the framing of the Fijian }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 Constitution.}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15155824 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15030257 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [45] In its submissions, the State has pointed to a list of statutory intrusions into privacy. Most relate to ob
ligations to provide information to State officials in particular situations. There are limited powers of search and seizure and limited schemes regulating the interception of postal and telephonic communications. }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15160766 The}{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid15160766  Illicit Drugs Control Act 2004}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 authorises the High Court to grant a warrant authorising the monitoring and recording of conduct and communications.
\par 
\par [46] But none of these legislative measures prohibits or regulates police surveillance generally, let alone the type of covert recording used in the present case. And we cannot accept the appel}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482 lant's}
{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 :}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid27299  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 submission that s.120 of the }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid281147 Constitution}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 provided a legislative basis for the issue of a warrant had the police sought one in the present case. We would therefore particularly adopt and apply
 to the Fijian context the first of the reasons of principle and public policy set out by Richardson J in the passage from }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid13042482 R v A}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  quoted above.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [47] }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid6255741 It}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 is unnecessary and inappropriate that we should embark upon an exhaustive exposition of the constitutional provisions relied upon. Our necessary conclusions can be shortly stated.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid15160766 [48]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
In our opinion, s.26 was not engaged in the present case. There was no taking of property or other form of trespassory conduct. The presence of s.37 makes it unnecessary to g
ive s.26 an expanded scope, as occurred in the United States and Canada. And the language of s.26 does not support the appellant's argument invoking it.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13042482 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 [49]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 In }{
\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid281147 Nadan v The State}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11828179  [2005}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
] FJHC 1, Winter J described the nub of the right of privacy as }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 the right to be let alone}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (citing Brandeis J in }{\b\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid281147 Olmstead v United States}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11828179  277 US 438, 478 (1928)). This}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  right is protected by s.37(1), subject to }{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{
\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid11828179 such limitations prescribed by law as are }{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11828179\charrsid11828179 reasonable}{
\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid11828179  and justifiable in a free and democratic society}{\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid2781816 "}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741  (s.37(
2)). But the primary right is not itself absolute or one whose scope is self-evident. As the New Zealand cases demonstrate, in the context of explicating the privacy no}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11828179 tion underlying that country's B
}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 ill of Rights protection against unreasonable search and seizure, the very n}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid27299 otion of privacy is informed by }{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 the standards of the community. Those standards can be discerned, at least in part, by the rules of the general law and the patterns of legislative}{
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid27299  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 protection afforded to privacy interests. Of course, a c
onstitutional guarantee is not controlled by the existing law. But neither is it something whose scope can be determined by judges operating in a legal and social vacuum.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147 
\par [50]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The reasoning in the New Zealand cases should be adopted and applied. Participa
nt recording in relation to serious criminal activity does not entail an unconstitutional breach of the privacy of the accused person in light of current standards of Fijian society. The nature of the offence in question engaged this principle.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147 
\par [51]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 At th
e hearing before us the appellant departed from his stance in the courts below, arguing now that Mr Narayan was unable to give oral evidence of the conversation because that itself entailed a breach of s.37. This submission would effectively nullify the o
ffence itself and write it out of the law. It is rejected.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147 
\par [52]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
The conviction should also be confirmed on the basis that, as Gates J and the Court of Appeal each held, the interests of justice required the admission of the evidence in any event. It is unn
ecessary to say more than that the portion of the reasons of Gates J tha}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147 t we have set out at para [11]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 betrays no error of fact or law. The interests of justice are not confined to the interests of an accused person.
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147 
\par }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid11828179 [53]}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741  }{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 The appeal should be dismissed.
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid281147 {\b\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid14760762\charrsid1990211 The Hon Justice Keith Mason}{
\b\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 
\par }{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 J}{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1990211 udge of the Supreme Court}{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 

\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8655881 {\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid281147 {\b\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 The Hon Justice K}{\b\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1990211 
enneth Handley}{\b\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 
\par }{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 J}{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1990211 udge of the Supreme Court}{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 

\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8655881 {\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid281147 {\b\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 The Hon Justice Mark Weinberg
\par }{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147\charrsid1990211 Judge of the Supreme Court}{\caps\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid1990211 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8655881 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid281147 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid281147 {\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8655881 Solicitors}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8655881 :}{
\fs24\ul\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid8655881 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6255741 {\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid281147 A.K. Singh Law,}{\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid6255741\charrsid6255741 
 Nausori for the Petitioner
\par Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions, Suva for the Respondent
\par }}