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{\fhimajor\f31536\fbidi \froman\fcharset163\fprq2 Cambria (Vietnamese);}{\fbimajor\f31538\fbidi \froman\fcharset238\fprq2 Times New Roman CE;}{\fbimajor\f31539\fbidi \froman\fcharset204\fprq2 Times New Roman Cyr;}
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{\fdbminor\f31559\fbidi \froman\fcharset204\fprq2 Times New Roman Cyr;}{\fdbminor\f31561\fbidi \froman\fcharset161\fprq2 Times New Roman Greek;}{\fdbminor\f31562\fbidi \froman\fcharset162\fprq2 Times New Roman Tur;}
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{\fhiminor\f31571\fbidi \fswiss\fcharset161\fprq2 Calibri Greek;}{\fhiminor\f31572\fbidi \fswiss\fcharset162\fprq2 Calibri Tur;}{\fhiminor\f31575\fbidi \fswiss\fcharset186\fprq2 Calibri Baltic;}
{\fhiminor\f31576\fbidi \fswiss\fcharset163\fprq2 Calibri (Vietnamese);}{\fbiminor\f31578\fbidi \froman\fcharset238\fprq2 Times New Roman CE;}{\fbiminor\f31579\fbidi \froman\fcharset204\fprq2 Times New Roman Cyr;}
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{\fbiminor\f31584\fbidi \froman\fcharset178\fprq2 Times New Roman (Arabic);}{\fbiminor\f31585\fbidi \froman\fcharset186\fprq2 Times New Roman Baltic;}{\fbiminor\f31586\fbidi \froman\fcharset163\fprq2 Times New Roman (Vietnamese);}}
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\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 THE AMBASSADOR OF}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
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Conflict of laws- jurisdiction of the court- immunity of diplomatic agent- sovereign immunity-}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
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a
nted to him by statute. The court also examined the common law doctrine of sovereign immunity both in its absolute and in its qualified form. It HELD: that the contract was not exclusively a private or commercial transaction and that accordingly it was su
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\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Claim against the Empire of Iran}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
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\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Governor of Pitcairn v. Sutton}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
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\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1976) 1 Lloyds Reps. 1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote I Congreso Del Partido\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1983] A.C. 244}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Kahan v. Pakistan Federation}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1951] 2 K.B. 1003}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Mighell v. Sultan of Johore}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1894) 1 Q.B. 149}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote Parlement Belge\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid14308144 HYPERLINK "http://www.paclii.org.vu/cgi-bin/LawCite?cit=%281880%29%205%20PD%20197" \\o "View LawCiteRecord"}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs15\ul\cf2\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1880) 5 P.D. 197
}}}\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\endnhere\sectlinegrid360\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid4009691\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote Phillipine Admiral\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1976) 1 Lloyds Reps 234}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Planmount Ltd v. Zaire}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1981] 1 All E.R. 1110}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 R v. Madan}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1961] 2 Q.B.1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Sengupta v. Republic of India}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1983) I.C.R. 221}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Interlocutory application in the High Court.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 P. Howard}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 for the Plaintiff}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 A. Khan}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 for the Defendant}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Fatiaki J}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 :}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 This case concerns a Fiji Standard Form of Building Contract entered into on the 17th of November 1995 between the plaintiff \lquote TRADING AS LANDMARK CONSTRUCTION
\rquote  and \lquote THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA\rquote  albeit executed by its Ambassador to Fiji His Excellency Babani Maranga (\lquote the defendant Ambassador\rquote ).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 

\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 This latter fact is highlighted insofar as the plaintiff\rquote s action ambiguously cites The Ambassador as the singular defendant and not the actual contracting party.}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The nature of the works to be performed under the aforesaid building contract entailed renovating the existing Head of Mission\rquote 
s official residence at 12 Milne Road, Muanikau, Suva for an agreed contract sum of $565,685.00. The architect who prepared the v
ery extensive drawings and specifications and under whose supervision the works were to be executed was Stuart Huggett of Architect Services Limited.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In terms of the contract the works were to be completed eight months after possession of the building si
te had been given and certainly by 19th August 1996 the specified Date of Completion.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Nothing much is known about the nature and quality of the works executed pursuant to the contract although, judging by the information provided in the plaintiff\rquote 
s claim No.9 dated 25th November 1996, it is clear that works were not completed by the completion date albeit that almost two thirds of the contract sum had been paid out.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Be that as it may on the 27th of September 1996 a winding up order was made by the High 
Court against Landmark Construction (Suva) Limited and, on learning of this the project architect by letter dated 13th December 1996 wrote to the plaintiff terminating the contract \lquote 
... in accordance with Clause 25(2) of the contract ... with effect from 27th September 1996\rquote .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The plaintiff on receiving the termination notice immediately disputed the notice in a letter dated 16th\~December 1996 in which he claimed that:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote The contract has been signed and sealed under the personal name of Govind Reddy with annexe trading as Landmark Construction.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
The liquidation of Landmark Construction (Suva) Ltd. company should have no legal effect on the above contract and therefore the liquidators or receivers have no right of access to this particular contract.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 If 
I may say so this letter contrasts even contradicts, quite categorically, an earlier letter dated 29th January 1996 written by the plaintiff to the defendants wherein he stated:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
We confirm by this letter that Landmark Construction (Suva) Ltd. is the principal contractor on the above project.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
Fifteen months passed without any apparent resolution and on the 11th of March 1998 the plaintiff finally issued an Originating Summons seeking various declarations concerning the correct parties to the contract 
and the validity of the termination letter. He also sought the return of various plant and machinery left at the construction site and damages for unpaid work.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 On 19th March 1998 the defendant by their solicitor\rquote s acknowledged service of the Originating Summons and on 8th April 1998 the defendant\rquote 
s solicitors lodged an application pursuant to Section 5 of the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid14308144 
HYPERLINK "http://www.paclii.org/fj/legis/consol_act/aa137/"}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs15\ul\cf2\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Arbitration Act}}}\sectd \ltrsect
\linex0\endnhere\sectlinegrid360\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid4009691\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
(Cap.38) for a stay of the proceedings pending the referral of the dispute between the parties to arbitration as contractually agreed (See: Clause 33 of the building contract).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Affidavits were filed on behalf of both parties and after numerous adjournments, the papers were finally placed before the Court for directions on the 3rd of August, 1998.}
{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Upon perusing the papers I became immediately concerned at the clear possibility that the plaintiff\rquote 
s claim constituted an action impleading a Sovereign State or, at the very least, the diplomatic agent of an independent sovereign state to whom various privileges and immunities are accorded.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 

\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I was mindful of the principle of international law set out in para.1548 of Vol.18 of}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Halsburys Laws of England}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (4th edn) which reads:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
An independent sovereign state may not be sued in 
the ... courts against its will and without its consent. This immunity from the jurisdiction is derived from the rules of international law, which in this respect have become part of the law ... It is accorded on the grounds that the exercise of jurisdict
i
on would be incompatible with the dignity and independence of any superior authority enjoyed by every sovereign state. The principle involved is not founded upon any technical rules of law, but upon broad considerations of public policy, international law
 and comity.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I was also mindful of the observations of Lord Parker C.J. in}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 R. v. Madan}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
[1961] 2 Q.B.1 when he said at p.7:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
Certain things are, we think clear. In the first place, it is not for someone who is entitled to diplomatic immunity to claim it
 in the courts. It is unnecessary to refer to the authorities, but ... certainly civil proceedings brought against somebody entitled to diplomatic immunity, are, in fact, proceedings without jurisdiction and null and void, unless and until there is a vali
d waiver which, as it were, would bring the proceedings to life and give jurisdiction to the court.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Accordingly, the Court with the agreement of counsel, formulated a preliminary question as follows:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
Assuming that the Independent State of Papua New Guinea is the proper defendant, does this court have jurisdiction to entertain this claim by the plaintiff?\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Submissions were ordered and these were finally provided on 4th November 1998. I am grateful to counsel for their assistance on this rather infrequ
ently encountered question of sovereign immunity.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Before turning to consider the submissions however, mention should be made of a further procedural question which arises from the plaintiff\rquote 
s claim, namely, what is the appropriate procedure (if any) for suing and serving an independent Sovereign State?}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
Is it, as the plaintiff has done in this instance, by issuing proceedings in the name of the local diplomatic agent of the State and serving it on him in this country? or ought the proceedings in this 
Court, as in an ordinary action against Government, be entitled in the name of the Attorney General of the State with service effected upon him after obtaining leave to serve out of the court\rquote 
s jurisdiction pursuant to Or.11 of the High Court Rules 1988?; or, is it the case, that a suit against an independent sovereign State may only be instituted in the domestic Courts of that State? This issue was not raised before me or addressed in counsel
\rquote s submissions however, and need not further concern me in this application. Suffice it to say that the answer to the question remains unclear.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
Counsel for the plaintiff in his brief written submission, without specifically addressing the formulated question or discussing the nature, effect, and differences between sovereign and diplomatic immunity, boldly submits that \lquote 
the defendant as Head of Mission of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea in Fiji has waived his immunities in this case (by signing and initialling each page of the building contract) and as such is deemed to be a waiver by that State\rquote .}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 As authority for this proposition reference is made to Art.32(2) of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which, pursuant to Section 3(1) of the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid14308144 HYPERLINK "http://www.paclii.org/fj/legis/consol_act/dpaia363/"}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs15\ul\cf2\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act}}}\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\endnhere\sectlinegrid360\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid4009691\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (Cap.8), \lquote ... shall have the force of law in Fiji\rquote  and also, to para.1575 of Vol.18 of}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Halsbury Laws of England}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (4th edn.) which reads in part:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
the privileges and immunities of diplomatic agents ... may be w
aived by the sending state. A waiver by the head of the mission ... is deemed to be a waiver by that State. Waiver must always be express. Accordingly, even if a person entitled to immunity has entered an appearance ... he may at a later stage prove that 
his government has not consented to a waiver of his immunity.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
Defence counsel in a fuller, more closely reasoned submission argues that the defendant Ambassador as the Head of Mission of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea is entitled to the privil
eges and immunities accorded under Art.31 of the Convention and, as such, is improperly joined in this proceedings for which there has been no express waiver by the Independent State of Papua New Guinea.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Needless to say counsel submits that \lquote entering int
o an agreement, the proper law of which is the law of Fiji, does not constitute submission to the jurisdiction of the Fijian Courts\rquote . Furthermore the agreement in question concerns the construction of an official residence for the Ambassador and 
\lquote as such (is) exclusively and particularly concerned with the conduct of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea as a diplomatic mission and ... hardly capable of being classed as commercial activities\rquote .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 As to the question of waiver counsel submits in reply that:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
Waiver as it is understood in the diplomatic parlance is nothing short of an express open act which indicates that the State does not wish to be bound by the terms of the Convention. Such an act, having the ramifications that it must, is hardly av
ailable to be invoked in this scenario, where the mere execution of the agreement does not of itself amount to waiver in the diplomatic sense.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I can now deal quite briefly with the question of diplomatic immunity which in this country is statutorily provided for under the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid14308144 HYPERLINK "http://www.paclii.org/fj/legis/consol_act/dpaia363/"}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs15\ul\cf2\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act}}}\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\endnhere\sectlinegrid360\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid4009691\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (Cap.8) (\lquote the Act\rquote ) which incorporates into the domestic law of Fiji, \lquote 
the provisions of Articles 1,22 and 24 inclusive, and 27 to 41 inclusive, of the (Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations)\rquote  (\lquote the Convention\rquote ).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The relevant Articles of the Convention for present purposes are: Article 1 containing various definitions and Articles 31 & 32 which deal with the jurisdictional imm
unities of a diplomatic agent, and the manner and circumstances under which such immunity might be waived.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In particular, Art.31 of the Convention provides (with three irrelevant exceptions not relied upon by the plaintiff) that:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-1134\li1134\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 
\af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-567\li1134\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 1.\~\~\~\~
 A diplomatic agent shall enjoy immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State. He shall also enjoy immunity from its civil and administrative jurisdiction.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~\~\~\~\~\~\~\~\~ and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 2.\~\~\~\~\~\~ A diplomatic agent is not obliged to give evidence as a witness.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In
 this case it is undisputed that, by definition, the defendant Ambassador is a diplomatic agent being the accredited head of the diplomatic mission of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea in Fiji. Furthermore, the premises at 12 Milne Road, Muanikau,
 Suva which the plaintiff claims he was contracted to renovate is the existing head of mission official residence in Fiji and in terms of Art.22 of the Convention \lquote shall be inviolable\rquote .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Article 32 which may be conveniently described as the \lquote waiver\rquote  article, is relied upon by the plaintiff. It, relevantly provides:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-567\li1134\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 1.\~\~\~\~
 The immunity from jurisdiction of diplomatic agents ... may be waived by the sending State.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-567\li1134\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 2.\~\~\~\~\~\~
 Waiver must always be expressed.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-720\li1440\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin1440\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 
\af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-567\li1134\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~\~\~\~\~\~\~\~\~
 and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-567\li1134\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 4.\~\~\~\~\~\~
 Waiver of immunity from jurisdiction in respect of civil ... proceedings shall not be held to imply waiver of immunity in respect of the execution of the judgment, for which a separate waiver shall be necessary.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi-1134\li1134\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin1134\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 
\af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
Section 3(6) of the Act further provides by way of expansion, in paragraph (d) that:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
... reference in Article 32 to waiver by the sending State shall be construed as including a waiver by the head of the mission of the sending State ...\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Prima facie therefore, in the absence of an express waiver, the defendant
 Ambassador is entitled to claim and is immune from the civil jurisdiction of this court. The plaintiff however has named the Ambassador as the defendant in these proceedings on the singular basis that in executing the building contract and in initialling
 every page thereof he had thereby expressly waived his diplomatic immunity. I cannot agree.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 There is not the slightest doubt in my mind that in executing the building contract and in initialling every page thereof, the Ambassador was acting at all times,
 in his official capacity as Ambassador for and on behalf of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea and cannot be said, by any stretch of the imagination, to have either expressly (as opposed to impliedly) waived diplomatic immunity or been engaged in 
a \lquote commercial activity ... outside his official functions\rquote  which is an excepted category in Art.31.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Needless to say it cannot be and has never been suggested that the premises being renovated by the plaintiff are the defendant Ambassador\rquote s private 
immovable property or that he is either personally or contractually liable under the building contract merely because he signed it.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I accept that Clause 33(5) of the building contract expressly provides that:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
The law of Fiji shall be the proper law of this Contract and in particular shall apply to any arbitration under this Contract wherever the same or any part of it, shall be conducted.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 

\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 but that inter partes agreement cannot and does not imply an express waiver of immunity nor does it amount to an
 actual submission or undertaking given to this court, in these proceedings, to exercise jurisdiction over the defendant Ambassador (See:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Kahan v. Pakistan Federation}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1951] 2 K.B. 1003).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 What is more the relevant time or occasion when waiver must occur or be expressed \lquote 
... is when the Court is about or is being asked to exercise jurisdiction ... and not at any previous time\rquote  (per Lord Esher M.R. in}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Mighell v. Sultan of Johore}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1894) 1 Q.B.149 at p.159).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In similar vein are the observations of Kay L.J. when his lordship said (ibid at p.163):}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
... the time at which immunity is to be waived must be when action is brought against the foreign sovereign, and when it is brought to the attention of the Court by reason of its judicial knowledge or from other i
nformation that the person sued is a foreign sovereign.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
In light of the foregoing and in the absence of a clear and express waiver of diplomatic immunity given to this Court by either the defendant Ambassador or the Independent State of Papua New Guinea
 as the sending State, I am constrained to rule that the defendant Ambassador is immune from the civil jurisdiction of this Court, is improperly named and/or joined in the present proceedings and the Originating Summons must be and is hereby set aside aga
inst him.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I turn next to consider the doctrine of sovereign immunity as it applies to the present proceedings which cites the Independent State of Papua New Guinea as a defendant.}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In the absence of domestic legislation dealing with this type of immunity
 such as exists in New Zealand (State Immunity act 1978) Australia (Foreign States Immunities Act 1985) and the United Kingdom (State Immunity Act 1978), I turn to the common law to ascertain the nature and extent of this widely-held doctrine of internati
onal law.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
In doing so I am immediately faced with two schools of thought, with the older school being in favour of an absolute rule of sovereign immunity, and the other, more recent view, favouring a more limited or restrictive approach.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I begin with the absolute view which is best expressed in the very well-known dicta of Lord Atkin in the \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Christina}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote  (1938) 60 Lloyds Reps.147 where his Lordship said at p.156:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
The foundation for the application to set aside the writ and arrest of the ship is to be found in two propositions of international law engrafted into our domestic law which seems to me to be well established and beyond dispute.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The first}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
\~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 is that the Courts of a country will not implead a foreign sovereign, that is, they will not by their proces
s make him against his will a party to legal proceedings whether the proceedings involve process against his person or seek to recover from him specific property or damages.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The second}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 , is that they will not by their process, whether the sovereign is a p
arty to the proceedings or not, seize or detain property which is his or of which he is in possession or control.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li5040\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin5040\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (my underlining)}{\rtlch\fcs1 
\af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 There are many reasons that have been advanced in support of the absolute rule including:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote ... that of \lquote 
par in parem\rquote  which effectively means that the sovereign or government act of one State are not matters upon which the Courts of other states will adjudicate\rquote  (per Lord Wilberforce in the \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I Congreso}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote  post at p.262); and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote that
 the exercise of such jurisdiction would be incompatible with regal dignity - that is to say, with (the sovereign\rquote s) absolute independence of any superior authority\rquote  (per Brett L.J. in the \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Parlement Belge}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote (1880)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
\~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid14308144 HYPERLINK "http://www.paclii.org.vu/cgi-bin/LawCite?cit=5%20PD%20197" \\o "View LawCiteRecord"}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs15\ul\cf2\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 5 P.D. 197}}}\sectd \ltrsect\linex0\endnhere\sectlinegrid360\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid4009691\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 at 207); and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
that, if the Courts ... once entertained the claim, and in consequence, gave judgment against the foreign sovereign (for debt or damages) they could be called upon to enforce 
it by execution against its property here. Such execution might imperil our relations with that country and lead to repercussions impossible to foresee (or predict). (per Lord Denning M.R. in the \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Harmattan}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote  (1976) 1 Lloyds Reps.1 at p.4).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 

\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The restrictive school of thought on the other hand, owes its modern Commonwealth origins to the judgment of the Privy Council in the \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Phillipine Admiral}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote 
 (1976) 1 Lloyds Reps.234 where the Privy Council adopted a restrictive doctrine of sovereign immunity which requires a Court faced with a claim for sovereign immunity (ibid at p.244):}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
to draw a distinction between acts of a State which are done jure imperii (i.e. public or sovereign acts) and acts done by it \lquote jure gestionis\rquote  (private actions) and (to) accord the for
eign State no immunity either in actions in personam or in actions in rem in respect of transactions falling under the second head.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The rationalisation often advanced for this more limited rule of sovereign immunity stems from the view that the activiti
es of Sovereigns and independent States at the time when the doctrine of absolute immunity was first developed, has so dramatically transformed especially in the fields of banking, trade and commerce as to warrant some limitation or exception being made t
o the absolute rule.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
One of the reasons advanced by the Privy Council for preferring the restrictive theory of sovereign immunity in its application to ordinary trading transactions was that it is more consonant with justice insofar as (ibid at p.248):}{\rtlch\fcs1 
\af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
In this country - and no doubt in most countries in the western world - the State can be sued in its own courts on commercial contracts into which it has entered and there is no apparent reason why foreign states cannot be equally liable to be sued there 
in respect of such transactions.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Lord Wilberforce in the \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I Congreso}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote  (post) identified two reasons for the limitation when he said (at p.262):}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
It appears to have two main foundations: (a) It is necessary in the interests of justice to individuals ha
ving (commercial or private law) transactions with States to allow them to bring such transactions before the Courts. (b) To require a State to answer a claim based upon such transaction does not involve a challenge to or inquiry into any act of sovereign
ty or governmental act of that state. It is ... neither a threat to the dignity of the State nor any interference with its sovereign functions.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In \lquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I Congreso Del Partido}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \rquote  [1983] A.C.244 the House of Lords approved and applied the restrictive doctrine, but Lord Wilberforce recognising the difficulties inherent in drawing the distinction said, at p.264:}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote The activities of States cannot always be compartmentalised into trading or government activities; and what is one to make of a case where a state has,
 and in the relevant circumstances, clearly displayed, both a commercial interest and a sovereign or government interest? To which is the critical action to be attributed?\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 His Lordship then considered how various foreign courts have sought to answer the question and concludes with the following test at p.267:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri566\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin566\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
... in considering ... whether state immunity should be granted or not, the court must consider the whole context in which the claim against the State is made, with a view to deciding whether the
 relevant act(s) upon which the claim is based, should, in that context, be considered as fairly within an area of activity, trading or commercial, or otherwise of a private law character, in which the State has chosen to engage, or whether the relevant a
ct(s) should be considered as having been done outside that area, and within the sphere of governmental or sovereign activity.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The difficulty in drawing the distinction may be said to arise in the present case. On the one hand, it might be said that in e
ntering into a contract to carry out renovation works to its Ambassador\rquote 
s official residence in Fiji, the Government of Papua New Guinea was undertaking an ordinary contractual obligation of a private or commercial nature which any private citizen could have entered into.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 This was certainly the view expressed by Lloyd J. in}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Planmount Ltd. v. Zaire}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1981] 1 All E.R.
 1110 where the plaintiff company, a small firm of builders, agreed to carry out certain building works for the Republic of Zaire at the official London residence of its ambassador; the plaintiff was paid only part of the contract price and it issued a wr
it against the Republic claiming the balance.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In rejecting the Republic\rquote s claim to sovereign immunity and in granting the plaintiff leave to serve the writ out of the jurisdiction, Lloyd J. said, at p.1114:}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
To my mind, it is hard to imagine a clearer case of an act or a transaction of a private commercial nature than the repairs to the ambassador\rquote s residence.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 There is also the decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of the German Federal Republic in the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Claim against the Empire of Iran}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1963) 45
 ILR.57 which was a claim for the cost of repairs to the heating system of the Iranian Embassy and in which immunity was refused and in which the Court said (at p.80):}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
As a means for determining the distinction between acts jure imperii and jure gestionis one should rather refer to the nature of the State transaction or the resulting legal relationships, and not to the motive or purpose of the State activity.\rquote }{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
On the other hand, the absolutist would argue that the provision of a safe and suitable residence for its accredited Ambassador in Fiji is undoubtedly and legitimately a concern, even a duty, of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea as the sending Sta
te and, therefore, any building contract entered into to achieve that end is and ought to be categorised as an act jure imperii.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Governor of Pitcairn v. Sutton}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 [1995] 1 N.Z.L.R. 426 the New Zealand Court of Appeal in upholding a claim for sovereign immunity in an action brought by a New Zealand citizen employed as a typist/clerk in the appellant\rquote 
s Auckland office, against her summary dismissal, Held:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote Mrs. Sutton\rquote 
s employment in the Pitcairn Office necessarily involved her in the public acts of the Br
itish Crown; and to allow consideration of a claim of unjustifiable dismissal in the Courts of New Zealand would intrude on the exercise of the sovereign functions exercised through the Governor of Pitcairn.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 
\fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Richardson J. in rejecting a submission that 
the dismissal of a clerk was something which any employer might do and therefore did not involve the power of the State, said at p.436:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li567\ri567\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin567\lin567\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
In my view that suggested approach poses the question too narrowly and in a vacuum.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The focus must be on the partic
ular contractual relationship and responsibilities and their termination. If the employee is engaged in carrying out the public functions of the foreign state, a challenge to the dismissal ... may well require consideration of how the work was done within
 the mission.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 In somewhat similar vein Browne-Wilkinson J. in}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Sengupta v. Republic of India}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1983) I.C.R.221, also a summary dismissal case involving an Indian national employed as a clerk in the Indian High Commission in London, in rejecting the submission that the classification into \lquote 
public\rquote  or \lquote private\rquote  acts depends wholly on the type of contract and not on the subject-matter of the contract, said at p.227:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li720\ri720\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \lquote 
There may be cases, particularly in relation to contracts of employment, where the performan
ce of the contract is itself part of the performance by the State of an essentially public or sovereign act. In my view it is necessary in each case to look at what is to be done under the contract in order to decide whether the entry into, and the perfor
mance of, that contract is a private act of the State or involves a necessary participation by the other contracting party in a public act of the State.\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb15\sa15\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13982562 \cbpat8 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Needless to say in the context of employment cases the above judgments quite plainly reject as overly
 simplistic the analysis that since any private individual can hire and fire another private individual therefore the entry by a State into a contract of employment is essentially a private act giving rise to a mere contractual relationship of employer an
d employee unrelated to the exercise of any sovereign function.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
In this case it is by no means an easy task to categorise with any confidence the essential nature of the contract between the parties, involving as it does, the construction of the official 
residence of the Ambassador of Papua New Guinea in Fiji and I must confess that my view has waxed and waned between the restrictive view and the absolutist.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 I am however finally and reluctantly driven to the conclusion that the contract between the 
parties is not so clearly and exclusively a private or commercial transaction that the restrictive view should inevitably prevail.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 
Needless to say the plaintiff must be taken to know that he was entering into a contract with an independent sovereign State and, just as the parties agreed in the contract, to arbitrate their differences, so too could the Independent State of Papua New G
uinea have expressly agreed to waive its sovereign immunity in similar terms to that contained in the agreement under consideration in:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 
\ltrch\fcs0 \ul\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 A Co. Ltd. v. Republic of X}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (1990) 2 Lloyds Reps.520 at p.522.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Furthermore this is not a case of a commercial transacti
on between a private contractor and a government-owned statutory body or shipping company where there might be some difficulty in identifying the body or company with an independent sovereign state or where there could be any doubt that the body being con
tracted with was the alter-ego of an independent sovereign state. Indeed this issue is only before the Court because the parties had not expressly agreed to the waiver of the defendant state\rquote s sovereign immunity.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 What is more, unlike in a private building
 contract where the resultant building is subject to execution, the official residence of the Ambassador of Papua New Guinea is by definition part of the \lquote premises of the mission\rquote 
 and therefore, in law, inviolable. In the words of Art.22 of the Convention it \lquote ... shall be immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution\rquote  unless expressly waived (See: Art.32(4) of the Convention).}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 
\ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 If I am wrong however in my categorisation of the contract between the parties and in upholding the absolute immunity o
f the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, from the civil jurisdiction of this Court, then I have no hesitation whatsoever in granting the defendant\rquote s application for a stay of the proceedings pursuant to an exercise of the court\rquote 
s discretion under Section 5 of the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid14308144 
HYPERLINK "http://www.paclii.org/fj/legis/consol_act/aa137/"}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs15\ul\cf2\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 Arbitration Act}}}\sectd \ltrsect
\linex0\endnhere\sectlinegrid360\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid4009691\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs16\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (Cap.38).}{
\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 The proceedings are accordingly stayed.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 \~}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid13982562 (Application granted; proceedings stayed.)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs27 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs27\cf1\insrsid13982562 
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid1972231 
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